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SHORT AND COMPREHENSIVE 



GREEK GRAMMAR, 



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By J. T. CHAMPLIN, 

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PREFACE. 



A Greek Grammar, appearing at the present day, 
after the principles of the language have been so 
thoroughly investigated, would hardly be expected 
to contain much that is new, except in form and 
statement. The materials for this have been taken 
largely from Kiihner's Larger Greek Grammar, trans- 
lated by Jelf, and in some parts from Kriiger's 
Greek Grammar, while the chapter on the verb, in 
the syntax, is little more than a condensed transla- 
tion of Wunder's admirable treatise on that subject. 
With these materials I have woven in such others 
as I have collected in the course of several years' 
experience in teaching the language and editing 
Greek authors, and have endeavored to classify, re- 
organize, and vivify the whole. 

The simple design with which the Grammar has 
been prepared is, to exhibit the central and essential 
facts and principles of the language in the clearest, 
most practical, and most summary form possible. 
For this purpose, all theories and complications of 
system belonging to general grammar have been 



IV PREFACE. 

avoided, and only their results used. At the same 
time, while it has been intended to introduce all 
the fundamental principles of the language, these 
have not been followed out with that copiousness 
of detail and illustration which would be appro- 
priate in a larger grammar. The rule which has 
been followed on this point is, to amplify and illus- 
trate the principles as far as is necessary for their 
clear understanding, and no further. Also, certain 
details which lie on the borders between grammar 
and lexicography, and may quite as well be left to 
the latter, have been omitted. In short, the aim 
has been to meet all the real wants of the ordinary 
student of Greek, without embarrassing him or dis- 
tracting his attention by what is unnecessary. And 
should it be felt that this end has, in any good 
degree, been attained, the book will fully meet the 
expectations of the author. 

As Greek is not so much studied by the young 
as the Latin, and as but few aspire to so familiar 
an acquaintance with it as to be able to speak or 
even to write it, it has not been thought necessary 
to introduce any thing by way of exercises, except 
simple lists of words for oral practice. If any teacher 
should feel the need of more extended and systematic 
exercises, he will readily find them in any of the 
Greek exercise books, as those of Arnold, Boise, or 
Kendrick. 



CONTENTS. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY, OR LETTERS, SOUNDS, AND SYLLABLES. 
SECTION I. 

LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. 

Classification of the Letters . § 1 

Sounds of the Letters .2 

SECTION II. 

CHANGES OF LETTERS. 

Changes of the Vowels 3 

Changes of the Consonants ....... 4 

SECTION III. 

SYLLABLES. 

Quantity of Syllables . . 5 

Accent of Syllables 6 

Changes of Accent on Syllables 7 

Unaccented Words, or Proclitics and Enclitics ... 8 

Inclination of the Accent ....... 9 



VI CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

DECLENSION. 

Introduction 10 

SECTION I. 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

Classification and Endi»ig3 of Nouns of the First Declension . 11 
Paradigms of the First Declension 12 

♦ SECTION II. 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Second Declension 13 
Paradigms of Nouns of the Second Declension . . .14 

SECTION III. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Third Declension 15 

Paradigms of Nouns of the Third Declension . . . .16 
Anomalous and Defective Nouns, chiefly of the Third Declension 17 

SECTION IV. 

DECLENSION AND COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 

Classification of Adjectives and Participles . . . .18 

Paradigms of Adjectives and Participles . . . . 19 

Comparison of Adjectives ....... 20 

Comparison of Adverbs 21 

SECTION V. 

NUMERALS. 

Classification and Table of Numerals 22 

Declension of Numerals 23 

SECTION VI. 

PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns 24 

Demonstrative and Relative Pronouns .... 25 
Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns 26 



CONTENTS. Vll 

Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs 27 

Strengthening of Pronouns 28 

CHAPTER III. 

CONJUGATION. 

Introduction 29 

SECTION I. 

VERBS IN 0). 

Classification of Verbs in a> 30 

Reduplication and Augment 31 

Reduplication and Augment in Compound Verbs . . .32 

Tense-Characteristic, Mode- Vowel, and Personal Endings . 33 

Paradigms of Verbs in o> 34 

Remarks on the Paradigms ...... 35 

Accent of the Verb 36 

Formation of the Tenses 37 

SECTION II. 

VERBS IN /It. 

Regular Verbs in /it 38 

Irregular Verbs in /it 39 

SECTION III. 

ANOMALOUS VERBS. 

Anomalies in Meaning 40 

Anomalies in Form 41 

CHAPTER IV. 

UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. 

Adverbs 42 

Prepositions 43 

Conjunctions 44 

CHAPTER V. 

FORMATION OF WORDS. 

Formation by Derivation 45 

Formation by Composition 46 



Vlll CONTENTS. 



SYNTAX 



CHAPTEE I. 

WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ATTRIBUTE, AND OBJECT. 

The Substantive or Noun 47 

The Pronoun 48 

The Article 49 

The Adjective 50 

CHAPTER II. 

AGREEMENT. 

General Rules of Agreement ...... 51 

Special Rules of Agreement 52 



CHAPTER III. 

THE OBLIQUE CASES. OBJECT. 

SECTION I. 

THE GENITIVE. 

Genitive of the Cause, Ground, or Origin .... 53 

Genitive of Mutual Relations . . . . . .54 

Genitive of Position, Separation, and Privation ... 55 

Partitive Genitive and Genitive of Material . . . .56 

SECTION II. 

THE ACCUSATIVE. 

Verbs with one Accusative 57 

Verbs with two Accusatives 58 

SECTION III. 

THE DATIVE. 

Dative of the Person 59 

Dative of the Thing 60 



CONTENTS. IX 

CHAPTER IV. 

THE VERB. 
SECTION L 

THE TENSES. 

The Present . . 61 

The Perfect 62 

The Aorist 63 

The Imperfect .64 

The Pluperfect . . ... 65 
The Future ... 66 

SECTION II. 

THE MODES. 

The Indicative 67 

The Subjunctive 68 

The Optative 69 

The Infinitive 70 

The Participle 71 

The Imperative 72 

The different Forms of the Verb with the Particle av . 73 

SECTION III. 

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

The Indicative in Conditional Sentences . . . . .74 
The Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences .... 75 
The Optative in Conditional Sentences 76 

SECTION IV. 

Sentences expressing a Wish 77 

SECTION V. 

FINAL SENTENCES. 

The Subjunctive and Optative in Final Sentences . . .78 
The Future Indicative in Final Sentences .... 79 
Indicative of Historical Tenses in Final Sentences . . ,80 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER V 

PARTICLES. 



Adverbs 
Prepositions 



81 

82 



APPENDIX. 

VERSIFICATION 



ETYMOLOGY. 



CHAPTER I 



ORTHOGRAPHY, OR LETTERS, SOUNDS, AND SYLLABLES, 



SECTION I. 



LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. 



§ 1. Classification of the Letters, 

1. The Greek language has as signs of its sounds the fol- 
lowing twenty-four letters, called the Alphabet : — 



A, a 


*A\<£a 


Alpha 


a 


B, ft 6 


Bjjra 


Beta 


b 


r, y 


TdpfJLa 


Gamma 


g (hard) 


A, d 


AeAra 


Delta 


d 


E, e 


*E yftiKop 


Epsilon 


6 


z, C 


Zrjra 


Zeta 


z 


H, rj 


*Hra 


Eta 


e 


e, s, 6 


Qtjtcl 


Theta 


th 


I, * 


'leSra 


Iota 


i 


K, K 


Ka7T7ra 


Kappa 


k 


A, X 


AdpfiSa 


Lambda 


1 


M, \L 


Mv 


Mu 


m 


N, v 


Nu 


Nfc* 


n 


s, I 


St 


Xi 


X 


O, o 


*0 pucpov 


Omikron 


6 


II, 7T, C7 


m 


Pi 


P 


p, p 


'Pc3 


Rho 


r 


2, 0-, j (final) 


Styyxa 


Sigma 


s 


T, r 


Tav 


Tau 


t 


Y, v 


T Y ^aXcfr 


Upsilon 


u 


*. <t> 


3>Z 


Phi 


ph 


X, X 


XI 


Chi 


ch 


*i * 


¥t 


Psi 


Pa 


Q, (o 


*Q fteya 


Omega 


6 



12 LETTERS AND THEIR SOUNDS. [§ 1. 

2. Of these letters, seven are vowels, viz. a, e, 77, i, o, v, a>, 
of which e and o are always short, 77 and w always long, and 
a, 1, and « are long in some syllables and short in others 
(called doubtful vowels). The sign used to designate a short 
vowel is w , and a long one "", while both these signs united 
(-) designate a doubtful vowel, which may be either short 
or long. 

3. The remaining letters are consonants, and are divided 
into mutes, liquids, etc., as in other languages. 

Rem. 1. The letters £ and ^ are double consonants, the former 
being composed of k<t, ycr, or x<r, and the latter of /3o-, 7rcr, or (pa. 
The letter £ also stands for ad in some words (as, 'A^mfe, instead 
of 'ABIjuaade), and is regarded by many as always equal (by transposi- 
tion of a and d) to da. 

4. The vowels 1 and v are often preceded by some one of 
the other vowels in the same syllable, and pronounced with 
it in one combined or blended sound. These combinations 
are called proper diphthongs, and are nine in number, at, av, 
ci, ev t riv, ot, ov, cov, and vi mostly before another vowel. Be- 
sides these combinations, d, 7/, and .© are found with 1 written 
under them (iota subscript) instead of after them ; as, a, 77, », 
which are called improper diphthongs. 

5. The curves s and c , one of which is w T ritten over the first 
letter of every word, when that letter is a vowel or diphthong, 
or p (over p also in the middle of a word, when doubled), are 
called breathings ; as, laropla, df)p t pd{3dos, Uvppos. The rough 
breathing ( c ) corresponds to our h, and the smooth breathing 
( ' ) simply indicates the particular kind of effort required to 
pronounce a vowel unpreceded by a consonant, as distin- 
guished from that required to pronounce it when it is preceded 
by a consonant. 

Rem. 2. The breathings, as well as the accent (see § 6), are 
written over the second vowel of diphthongs ; as, cvktjKos ; but when 
both the vowels of an improper diphthong are written one after the 
other (as when they begin a word which commences with a capital), 
they are placed over (or rather, as is the case with all initial capitals, 
over and a little before) the first letter; as/AiSr/s. But when the 



§ 3.] CHANGES OF LETTERS. 13 

whole word is written in capitals, the breathings, as well as the accents 
and all other grammatical signs, are omitted altogether ; as, AAH2. 

Rem. 3. The letters v and p at the beginning of a word regularly 
take the rough breathing, and of two p's in the middle of a word, the 
first takes the smooth and the second the rough ; as, vnep, poapr], 
apprjv. The kind of breathing used in other cases must be learned 
from observation. 

Rem. 4. The rough breathing is much less used by the iEolic and 
Homeric dialects than by the Attic ; as, i/'/x/xes, rjtXios, instead of 
vp.es, fjXios. 

§ 2. Sounds of the Letters. 

1. The sounds of most of the consonants are sufficiently 
indicated in the alphabetical table ; but it should be stated in 
addition, that y has the sound of ng in anger before k, y, x, £ ; 
as, ayycXos (ang-gelus) ; also, r before i is always hard, never 
having the sound of 5 or sh ; as, Yakarla (not Galashia). 

Rem. 1. The Greek historians of Rome expressed the Latin Qu by 
Ko or Kv, and the Latin V by Ov or B. 

2. The Greek vowels and diphthongs are generally pro- 
nounced by English and American scholars mostly after the 
analogy of the English language. But vi should be pro- 
nounced like whi ; as, vlos (ivhios) ; and many scholars give 
ou, (ov the sound of ou in soup, rather than of ou in our. The 
improper diphthongs are generally pronounced as the simple 
letters. 

Rem. 2. In translating proper names into the Latin or English, 
at becomes ce, et becomes I or e, ol becomes ce, ov (also o in the end- 
ing of words) becomes u, and v becomes y ; as, &aldpo$, Phcedrus ; 
AvKelov, Lyceum. 



SECTION II. 

CHANGES OF LETTERS. 

§ 3. Changes of the Vowels. 

1. The vowels vary in the same words in the different dia- 
lects, especially in the Ionic and Doric dialects, the former of 
which delights in the softer, and the latter in the harsher 

2 



14 CHANGES OF LETTERS. [§ 3, 

sounds. Thus a common variation between them is, the use 
of a, in many words, by the Doric, in place of e, 77, o, or o>, by 
the Ionic ; as, rpdcpco for rpe^xa, irparos for 7TpG>T0S) etc. 

2. The vowels are changed for the sake of euphony or har- 
mony (chiefly in the inflection of words) by contracting two 
or more which immediately follow each other into one long 
vowel or diphthong. In this way 77, t, v, and a> absorb a fol- 
lowing vowel, and are simply made long in quantity when 
short before ; as, fadves = lx6i>s ; — a, e, and o form a diph- 
thong with a following 1, the 1 being subscribed under a ; as, 
yrjpal == yrjpa ; — e before a long vowel or diphthong, and o 
before eo, ai, 01, and ou, are dropped ; as, (f>i\eoi$ = cj)iKo'is. 
There are also some other contractions, less capable of being 
generalized into a rule. 

Rem. 1. In some cases the principle of contraction in nouns and 
verbs varies, and sometimes even in different declensions of the noun ; 
as, €a=d in the second declension, = 77 (but a when a vowel pre- 
cedes) in the third. Other particulars about contraction will be 
learned from the paradigms. 

3. Vowels are frequently changed by crasis (the sign of 
which, called coronis, is that of the smooth breathing placed 
over the contracted syllable), or the contracting of *two words 
into one, when a small and unimportant word, ending in a 
vowel (such as the article, neuter relative, Km, J, eya>, rot, etc.), 
is closely connected with a following word beginning with a 
VOWel ; as, dvrjp from 6 dvfjp, TakrjSes from to d\r)6es, Oarepa from 

to €T€pa, Kaya from Ka\ cya>, Kara from Ka\ etra (the 1 being sub- 
scribed when it belongs to the second word, but not when 
it belongs to the first). 

Rem. 2. As will be seen from the above examples, when the 
vowel of the second word has a smooth breathing, that is simply re- 
tained after contraction , and no additional sign of the crasis is added ; 
and when the vowel of the second word has the rough breathing, the 
coronis takes its place on the contracted syllable, and a smooth mute 
(7r, k, t) at the beginning of the first word becomes rough (<£, ^, 6). 

4. A vowel is often cut off by elision (the sign of which is 
the apostrophe ') at the end of a word before another word 



§ 4.] CHANGES OF LETTERS. 15 

beginning with a vowel ; as, tovt co-tiv. It occurs most fre- 
quently in the poets, and chiefly in separate words, but often 
also in compound words, where the apostrophe, however, is 
omitted ; as, avcXQtiv from dvd and i\6elv. 

Rem. 3. Elision generally takes place, even in prose, at the end 
of all the prepositions, except nepi and rrpo and sometimes eVe/ca ; of 
many particles and adverbs ; as, d\\d, apa, p.6Xa, and many other ad- 
verbs in a before av ; also, ha, ye, ore (but not on), ert, etc. ; of the 
forms of the pronouns ending in a, o, e ; of eWt, <t>r)fii, olda, olcrBa, 
and verbal forms in fit, cri, t, a, €, o ; as, aXX* avros, <j)r}p eya>. In 
poetry it occurs in many other cases (occasionally even in a long 
vowel or diphthong), and in a few cases before a consonant; and 
sometimes, too, the first vowel of the last word is elided, instead of 
the last vowel of the first word (aph&resis) . 

5. The changes by crasis and elision take place in order 
to prevent the difficulty in pronunciation arising from the 
concurrence of two vowels in separate words, which is also 
effected in certain cases by adding v (before another word 
beginning with a vowel) to various endings : — 

a) To the end of the dative plural and many adverbs in <ri. 

b) To the third person singular and plural of verbs in <n (also 
eWt) ; and the third person singular in e. 

c) To the Epic vv, *e, and suffix <j)i. 

d) Often also to c'Ikoo-i, the demonstrative ending /, and s to ovtco, 
axph p*XP L ( or more strictly s is dropped in these words before a 
consonant). • 

e) Also k to ov, and s to ck ; of which the latter becomes e£ (=e/c-s) 
before a vowel and at the end of a sentence, and the former ovk before 
a vowel (oi>x when the following vowel has the rough breathing), and 
ov (having an accent) at the end of a sentence, and in the mean- 
ing no. 

Rem. 4. The variable v, also, is regularly added to the above 
endings before periods and the principal punctuation-marks, and in 
poetry, sometimes even before a consonant in the following word, for 
the sake of making a short syllable long. 

§ 4. Changes of Consonants in Inflection and Derivation. 

1. The mutes before a mute, viz. 7r, j3, <f> (pi-mutes), and *, 
y, x (kappa-mutes), before t, 6", 6 (tau-mutes), are changed in 
each case to the pi- or kappa- mute which corresponds (in the 
order in which they are here introduced) to the tau-mute 



16 CHANGES OF LETTERS. [§ 4. 

before which they are to come. So that when /3, <£, *y, ^ 

would regularly come before r, the first two become 7r, and 

the last two k ; and, in like manner, «•, <f> and k, ^ become, 

respectively, j3 and y before 5, and 7r, /3 and *, y become 

$ and x before 6 ; as, rerpiirrai (instead of Terpt/3-rat), pdfidos 

(for paTT-Sos), liiKkxOrjV (for €7rk€K-6rjv). 

Rem. 1. The first mute in each of the above classes is called (in 
reference to the degree of aspiration with which they are pronounced) 
a smooth mule, the second a medial or middle mute, and the last a 
rough mute. And those which can stand before each other, as de- 
scribed above, are called cognate mutes. 

2. The mutes se, k, t (smooth mutes) are changed respec- 
tively into <j>, x> & (rough mutes), also, before a rough breath- 
ing, both in inflection and derivation, and in separate words ; 
but /3, y, d (middle mutes) are changed thus only in the in- 
flection of the verb ; in other cases they remain unchanged ; 
as, d(j> ov (instead of air o£), icprjpepos (from It? fjpepa), e'lkoxa 
(for eiXoy-d). 

3. A tau-mute (r, 6\ 6) before p, or another tau-mute is 
changed into o-, but before or is dropped ; as, 7re7r£io-pat (instead 
of 7reT7€i6-jxai), Tjpeio-Brjv (for rjpelb-6r)v)^ avvaco (for dwr-o 1 ©). 

4. A pi-mute (77-, /3, <£) before /x is changed into ti, and be- 
fore .0- forms with that letter the double consonant ^ ; as, 
rerpippai (instead of rerpt/3-pai), \el\jscD (for XetV-o-o)). 

5. A kappa-mute (k, y, x) before p. becomes y, and before 
o- (except in the preposition eY) forms with that letter the 
double consonant £ ; as, /BePptypai (for j3€(3pex m pai>), Ppe£<o (for 
fipex'crco). 

6. The liquid v is changed into p before a pi-mute (71-, j3, 
<£, ^), into y before a kappa-mute (k, y, *i £)> an d before 
another liquid (X, tt, p) into the same liquid ; but v remains 
unchanged before a tau-mute (r, S, 0) and in enclitics ; as, 
€p7T€ipia (for €P-7r€ipla), ep/3dXXa> (for ej/-/3dXXa>), (rvyAcaXea) (for 
o-vz>-KaXea>), cryppLiTTto (for o'VV-piirTco) ; but o-wSeoo, ovirtp, rovye. 

Rem. 2. In like manner 1/ in o-w is changed into a before cr fol- 
lowed by a vowel. But v in the preposition eV is not generally 
changed into p before that liquid ; as, eVptWo). 






§ 5.] SYLLABLES. 17 

7. The liquid v (except in a very few cases, mostly in lv 
and 7raXiV) is dropped before o- and £ ; and vr, i>6\ v6 are not 
only dropped before o-, but the preceding short vowel is length- 
ened, viz. e into ei, o into ov, and short a, *, and v become 
long; as, crv^vyla (instead of crvvfyyla), (rvo-rrjfjLa (for enWr^/za) ; 

CT7T€l<T(d (for OTT«/§0-G)), XeOUCTl (for XeOJTO-l), TV^dtLCn (for TV- 
<f)6eVT(Tl) . 

8. When in an uncompounded word two successive sylla- 
bles would regularly begin with a rough mute, the first (or the 
second, when the syllables belong to the inflectional ending 
of a verb) becomes smooth ; as, ire^iKr^Ka (instead of ^e^iXr/Ka), 
€Tv0rfp (for i&u0qp)i ireOrjv (for €6e6r)v) ; but rv<p6r)Ti (instead of 

Rem. 3. As, too, p is an aspirate, this letter is not repeated at 
the commencement of two successive syllables in reduplication, but 
is simply doubled and i placed before it ; as, eppvrjKa (instead of 
pepvrjKa) . 

9. When in inflection or derivation a rough mute, at the 

end of a word which commences with r, is changed so as to 

cease to be such, the loss is compensated by changing the 

preceding t to 6 ; as, 6pty<o (from Tpicjxo, <j> having become 

^ by inflection), &tyo> (from TA<Mi), 6pl^ (gen. rpixos). And 

on a like principle, e£o) (with a rough breathing) from ex©. 

Rem. 4. The r is changed thus, also, before the passive endings 
of the verbs rpecfxo, TA$Q, TPY$Q, which begin with 6 ; as, idpty- 
6r)v, 0p€(j>-6t)croiMii. 

SECTION III. 

SYLLABLES.* 

§ 5. Quantity of Syllables. 

1. Syllables are said to be long or short according to the 
length of time required for their pronunciation. 

* As to the division of Greek words into syllables, the English analogy 
is more commonly followed, in this country, than any other. " Syllabica- 

2* 



18 SYLLABLES. [§ 6. 

2. The length of a syllable depends either upon the natural 
properties of its vowel, or upon its position with reference to 
the consonants which follow. 

3. A syllable is short by nature when its vowel is e or o, 

and generally when it is a, i, v ; as, IvopXo-a ; and long by nature 

when its vowel is 77, a>, a contracted vowel or a diphthong, or 

(occasionally) a, I , v ; as, ^pas, 7raldevfjs^ a6\os (from ae$W), 

KpipcS, 

Rem. X. In Homer, a long vowel or diphthong at the end of a 
word, and not receiving the poetic accent (i. e. when it is not in the 
arsis) , is made short when the next word begins with a vowel. 

4. But a syllable with a short vowel becomes long by posi- 
tion when two or more consonants or a double consonant 
(£, £, and yjr) immediately follow it. 

Rem. 2. But a short vowel is not generally long by position 
(except in Homer) before a mute followed by a diquid (as, 'aKprj, 
(S&rpvs), except it be in composition, or when /3, y, or d is followed 
by X, /i, or v ; as ^Kvipoa (from £k and i/e/i©), jSt^Xoy. 

Rem. 3. In final syllables, in Homer, a short vowel is made long 
by position when it stands before one consonant in its own word, and 
one or more at the beginning of the following word, and generally 
when both consonants (except they are a mute followed by a liquid), 
or a double consonant, stand at the beginning of the following word. 

§ 6. Accent * of Syllables. 

1. There are three accents in Greek, the acute ('), the 
grave ( % ), and the circumflex (" or"). The acute marks a 
sharp and rising tone, the grave a depressed or falling tone, 
and the circumflex a rising, ending in a falling tone (it being 
composed of an acute followed by a grave accent) ; as, rv7rro), 

top \6yov, KdKCDS. 

tion," says Sophocles (Gram,), "is not based upon any linguistic princi- 
ple. According to Sextus it is foolish talk. In ancient inscriptions a 
word is divided where the line ends." 

* Those who reject or disregard the written accent usually follow the 
Latin rule, viz. to accent the penult in dissyllables, and in polysyllables 
the penult if long, but otherwise the antepenult. 



§ 6.] SYLLABLES. 19 

2. The acute may stand upon either of the last three sylla- 
bles of a word ; the circumflex, upon either of the last two ; 
but the grave accent is never found except on the last sylla- 
ble, and then it is merely a depressed or softened acute. 
Hence the grave accent, as such, is barely imaginary, it 
being assumed by the ancient grammarians as understood 
upon all syllables which have no written accent. 

3. Words having the acute accent on the last syllable (ulti- 
mate) are called oxy tones (as, kclkos), those having the circum- 
flex, perispomena (as kokoSs), and those having no accent at all 
on this syllable, barytones (as, irpayiia, rvnTco). 

4. Words having the acute accent on the last syllable but 
one (penult) are called paroxytones (as, tvittco), and those hav- 
ing the circumflex on this syllable, properispomena (as, <£i- 
\ova-i) ; while those having the acute on the last syllable but 
two (antepenult) are called 'prop or oxy tones ; as, avOpviros. 

5. The acute may be placed indifferently on long or short 
syllables ; the circumflex, only on syllables long by nature ; 
as, koXos, dvflpamov, xPVH- a ^ 7r " ff * 

6. No accent but the acute can ever stand on the ante- 
penult, and this only when the ultimate is short both by nature 
and position ; as, avOpayrroQ (but avBp&Trov). 

7. No accent but the acute can stand on the penult when 
the ultimate is long by nature ; as, relxrj (but reixos). 

8. No accent but the circumflex can stand on a penult 
long by nature, when the ultimate is short by nature, or long 
only by position ; as, T£ix os i v&pa* a$\ag. 

Rem. 1. The above rules, as will be seen, are rather rules of 
limitation as to the kind of accent on particular syllables, than rules for 
the actual place of the accent on individual words. The place of the 
accent on words in their unchanged form must be learned from the 
Lexicon, and then these, and other rules which will be given in con- 
nection with the paradigms, will be a guide for the change of accent 
growing out of a change of form. 

9. An oxytone (except ris, ri, who ? what ?) before another 
word, without the intervention of some punctuation-mark, has 



20 SYLLABLES. [§ 7. 

its accent depressed and written as grave ; as, 6 pev Kvpos 

€7T€pa(r€ tov jrorapov. 

10. The endings at and 01 (except in the third pers. sing, 
opt. act., and in the adverb o'Uoi) are treated as short, as far 
as the rules of accent are concerned ; as, ru7rrerat, x®P°h 

€KTTa\ai. 

11. The Attic endings <os and ©i/, also, of the second and 
third declensions, where e precedes either immediately or with 
but a liquid between, and the Ionic €o>, allow an acute on the 
antepenult, since the e was generally clipped or omitted in 
pronunciation (synizesis) ; as, dvwyew, (jfuXoyeX©?, nokccDv, 6V 

CT7TOT60), €VK€pG>S. 

12. As a general rule, the accent remains on the accented 

syllable of the nominative of a noun or adjective, unless 

changed according to the above general rules ; but on verbal 

forms it is generally as near the beginning of the word as 

allowable by the above rules. 

Rem. 2. As to the place of the accent relative to other gram- 
matical signs, the acute is written after the breathing and between the 
two points of the diaeresis ("), while the circumflex is written above, 
in both cases ; as, anai-, evpos, KXeifco, icKrjXdcs. 

§ 7. Changes of Accent on Syllables. 

The accent is often changed, in accordance with the pre- 
ceding rules, by inflection, derivation, contraction, elision, etc. 

1. When the accent remains on the same syllable, it is 
often changed in kind according to the preceding rules, viz. 
the circumflex into the acute, and the reverse, as the quantity 
or character of the syllables is changed ; as, koKos acoXoO, 
pLOxxra. fiov(T7]9f (f>evyco (ftevye. 

2. The accent is drawn towards the beginning of a word, 
when it is increased by the addition of a syllable at the begin- 
ning, or when, by some change, the reason for retaining the 
accent on the penult is removed ; as, tv7tt(o — tctvcjxi, fiov- 
Xevo) — ftovXcve. 

3. The accent is drawn towards the end of the word, when 



§ 8.] SYLLABLES. 21 

the ultimate becomes long, or when the addition of final sylla- 
bles makes it necessary to remove the accent nearer to the 
end; as, 7wro/icu — TU7rra>/ie$a, rvcfrdrjcroiieBa; avOpomof- — avBpanrov, 

4. In derivation and composition, most compound nouns 
and adjectives, and all compound verbs, draw the accent as 
near to the beginning of the word as the laws of accentuation 
permit ; as, fyikodeos (from 6e6s), airofavy* (from <£evya>). 

5. The accent of a word is not disturbed by contraction, 
when neither of the contracted syllables is accented; but when 
either of the two contracted syllables has the accent, if these 
be the penult and antepenult, the accent of the contracted 
syllable (also, a syllable formed by crasis) depends upon the 
quantity of the ultimate, according to the general rules (as, 
v\r)€<r<ra — v\rj(T(ra 9 ^iXeofievos — <pLkovfi€POs } ra aKka — rdAXa) ; if 
they be the ultimate and penult, the contracted syllable (the ul- 
timate) has the circumflex, when the first had the acute, and the 
acute, when the second had it; as, foot — fool, iarans — ioT&s. 

Rem. 1. In crasis the accent of the first word is lost, and either 
that of the second remains, or it is changed as above. 

6. When the accented vowel of a word is cut off by elision, 
the accent is thrown back, as an acute, upon the preceding 
syllable, except in monosyllables, prepositions, and the parti- 
cles dXkdy ovde, fJLrjde, rjde, ide, and the enclitics nva, 7rore, when 

it wholly disappears; as, (prjfi eya> (from <£*7/n), nap 9 e/xoO (from 

Trapa). . 

7. Most dissyllabic prepositions, when placed after their 
word, or used as the abridged forms with clp.1, have their ac- 
cent drawn from the last to the first syllable, which is called 
anastrophe, and takes place chiefly in poetry ; as, 'itiaKrjv Kara 
(instead of Kara) ; <p[Kov fiera ; d\X ovftev avr$ tcdv ifxa>v fx e'lpyeiv 
\kkra (for fiereo-Ti). 

§ 8. Unaccented Words, or Proclitics and Enclitics. 

1. There are a few small words which are so closely con- 
nected with the following word as to lose their accent. Such 



22 SYLLABLES. [§ 9. 

words are called proclitics or atonies , and are the follow- 
ing : 6, ^, ot, al (forms of the article) ; eV, els (es), c* (e|), a>s 
(preposition?) ; o£ (ovk, ovx), cos (as), e;. 

Rem. 1. But ck and cos have an accent when placed after their 
word ; as, kclkcov e£, Kanoi cos (so, also, cos for oi/ra>ff). The negative 
ov, also, is accented at the end of a sentence ; as, izcos yap ov; 

2. Enclitics, on the contrary, are small words so dependent 
on the word which precedes them as either to throw back 
their accent upon that word, or, if the accentuation of the 
word will not allow that, lose it altogether. They are the 
following : — 

a) The pres. indie, of et/xt and fopl (except the sec. pers. et and 

b) The forms of the pronouns /zoO, fioi, p>e, — &ov, trol, ere, — ov, 
of, e, viv, — cr(f>coLV, cr<plcri, and the Ionic forms crfficoe, o-cfiecov, crqbeas* 

c) The indefinites vis, ri (in all cases, including the abridged forms 
rov and tco), 7ra>s, ttco, 7tt), ttov, ttoB'l, iroQkv, rroi, ttotc (but all these 
words take an accent as inter rogatives) . 

d) The particles re, roi, ye, vvv, irep, 6r\v, and the inseparable Se. 

Rem. 2. Many of these enclitic particles unite with other small 
words into a single word ; as, ovre, ctre, coenrep, ootls, etc. 

§ 9. Rules for the Inclination of the Accent. 

An enclitic being viewed as a suffix to a word, and hence 
a part of it, the following rules for the loss or throwing back 
of its accent will be seen to follow from the general laws of 
accent already given. 

1. An oxytone before an enclitic naturally resumes the 
acute form of its accent, which had been depressed before, 
since it no longer stands at the end of the word ; as, drjp ns 
(instead of 6rjp t\s), koKos eVrt, etc. 

2. A perispomenon unites with an enclitic without any 
change of accent, as though the added enclitic were always a 
short monosyllable (which, however, it is not always) ; as, 
(pebs n (for cfi&s r\) ; KaXov twos-, etc. 

3. A paroxytone unites with a following monosyllabic en- 
clitic without any change of accent (as though the added 






§ 9.] SYLLABLES. 23 

syllable were always short), but before a dissyllabic enclitic 
word there is no union, and consequently the enclitic retains 
its accent ; as, <f>ikos p.ov (for cf)[\os /xoO) ; but cpikos earl, etc. 

4. A proparoxytone or properispomenon (except such as 
end in £ or -<//■) unites with the following enclitic, so as to receive 
from the enclitic an additional acute accent on the last sylla- 
ble ; as, avdpcojros riff (instead of avOpcowos t\s), <rcop.d eort (for 
<rc3/za ear/) ; but av\a£ twos* 

Rem. 1. The forms of the demonstrative pronouns which take 
the enclitic suffix 8e, and most of the adverbial forms ending in o, 
which have the enclitic suffixes 6ev (Be), <re, c9t, take the accent 
(which before the last class of suffixes is always acute) on the last 
syllable before the suffix ; as, roa-ocrde, Toacode (both from rocros) , 
ovpavodev. In cases where the root does not end in o, the accent of 
the root is retained in the forms with Bev, ere, 6i. 

5. When several enclitics follow each other, they are to be 
regarded as so many syllables added to the last accented 
word, and those preceding receive the accent of those follow- 
ing, according to the preceding rules of inclination ; as, koXos 
ye ris (proparox.), KaXoi ye el\<ri (proparox. and oxyt.), koXoI ye 
Ti\pes ela-i (two proparox.), etc. 

6. But enclitics often retain their accent, especially when 
they stand at the beginning of a sentence or clause, or are in 
some way emphatic (in which case earl becomes ecrrt), viz. : — 

a) eljii after el, ovk, a>s, dXX', p,rj, Kai, fiev, on, nov, tovt, 

b) crov, vol, <re after /cat, an accented preposition, and in contrasts ; 
as, /caret ere ; c/xot, ov croi. 

c) ov y ot, e, only when they have a reflexive sense. 

d) Enclitics are also accented when the syllable on which the ac- 
cent would be thrown back is cut off by elision ; as, kclKos (V eVriV, 
but Kakbs de ioriv. 

Note. As to punctuation-marks, the period, exclamation point 
(as far as used), and comma are the same in Greek as in English; 
but the interrogation point is the same as the English semicolon ( ; ) , 
while the place of our colon and semicolon is supplied by a dot, like 
the period, placed at the top of the line ( * ). 



24 DECLENSION. [§ 10. 

CHAPTER II. 

DECLENSION. 

§ 10. Introduction. 

1. The parts of speech susceptible of declension in Greek 
are the article, the noun, the adjective, and the pronoun. 
The verb, also, is inflected, but this is called conjugation, and 
will be treated of in a subsequent chapter. 

2. The Greek has three numbers, the singular, the dual, and 
the plural ; and five cases, the nominative, the genitive, the 
dative, the accusative, and the vocative. The dual denotes 
two, and is but little used. The cases denote the same as in 
Latin, except that the place of the Latin ablative is supplied 
partly by the genitive, but chiefly by the dative, which, there- 
fore, means not only to, for, but by, with, at, etc. 

Rem. 1. The dual has but two endings, one for the nom., ace, 
and voc, and one for the gen. and dat. Neuter nouns have the 
nom., ace., and voc. alike in each number. 

3. The gender of nouns in Greek, which, as far as it de- 
pends upon the meaning, is determined by substantially the 
same general conceptions of gender as in the Latin, is three- 
fold, masculine, feminine, and neuter. 

4. The gender of the noun is indicated in Greek by the 
article, which corresponds nearly to our definite article, and 
invariably accompanies the noun in certain relations. The 
article is thus declined : — 





Singular. 




Plural 




Masc. 


Fern. Neut. 




Masc. Fern. Neut. 




Nom. 6 




the 


t e * 

ol at Ta, 


the 


Gen. tov 


TTJS TOV, 


of the 


T(OV TCDV T&V, 


of the 


Dat. to 


TTJ T<5, 


to (by) the 


toIs Tats toIs, 


to (by) the 


ACC. TOV 


TT]V TO, 


the 


TOVS TQS TCLy 


the 



§11.] - FIRST DECLENSION. 25 

Dual 
Masc. Fern. Neut. 

Norn., Ace, and Voc. to> to. t&, the two 

Gen. and Dat. toIv tcuv toIv, of to (by) the two, 

Rem. 2. The interjection eo stands in place of the article with the 
vocative. The feminine forms of the article in the dual, as indeed 
of adjectives, are rarely found, the masculine being commonly used in 
this number with feminine nouns. 

5. There are three declensions of nouns in Greek, distin- 
guished as the frst, second, and third declensions. 



SECTION I. 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

§11. Classification and Endings of Nouns of the First 

Declension, 

1. Nouns of the first declension end in a (a), 77, as, and 77s, 
of which those in a and rj are feminine, and those in as and rjs 
masculine. 

2. The case-endings are : — 

Singular. Plural Dual. 

Nom. a a tj as 7]9 ai a 

Gen. rjs as qs ov (old ao, eco, cov (old dcov, €0)i>, Dor. av) aw 

Dor. d) 



Dat. 77 a xi 


a XI 


ais (old at«ji, 770-4, ys) 


aiv 


Ace. av av 7]v 


av 7]v 


as (iEol. ais) 


a 


Voc. a a 77 


a 77, a 


at 


a 



3. Feminine nouns (and adjectives) of the first declension 
are of four classes : — 

a) Where a is preceded by p, e, or t (a pure), in which 
(and a few others) the a is retained throughout the singular. 

b) Other nouns in a, which in the gen. and dat. change a 
into 77. 

c) Nouns in 77, which retain the 77 throughout the singular. 

3 



26 



FIRST DECLENSION, 



[§12. 



d) Certain nouns in a (also a few masc. in as) preceded by 
a or e (also, the adj. form 077), which are contracted, respec- 
tively, into a and 77 (as, rjs), and the circumflex retained in all 
the cases in all numbers ; as, pvda, pva, pvas. 

4. The gen. sing, of masc. nouns of this declension ends in 
ov in the Attic dialect, except in a few cases where this dialect 
uses the Doric gen. in d and the Ionic in eo> ; as, 6pvi6o6r)pa 
(of a fowler) ; Kap(3vo-eco. 

5. The vocative of nouns in rjs has a in the following 
cases : — 

a) When preceded by r (rrjs). 

b) When derived from a noun and a verb ; as, yecoperprjs — 

yecoperpa. 

c) All national denominations, and a few proper names; 
as, Ueparjs — ILepaa (a Persian). 





§ 12. 


Paradigms of the First Declension. 








Singular 










victory. 


shadow. 


muse. 


mina. 


judge. 


steward. 


Norn. 


VLK7J 


o-klo, 


fiovo-a 


p.v(da)a 


1 KpLTTJS 


raplas 


Gen. 


vlktjs 


ffKias 


povo"qs 


pvas 


KpLTOV 


raplov 


Dat. 


vUrj 


CTKiq 


povarj 


pva 


KplTT) 


rap la. 


Ace. 


VLKTjV 


(TKldv 


povaav 


pvav 


KplTTjV 


Taplav 


Voc. 


VIKT) 


(TKLCL 


povcra 
Plural 


pva 


KplTO, 


rap la 


Norn. 


VLKai 


a-Ktal 


povaat 


pval 


KpiraL 


raplai 


Gen. 


VIKCQP 


CTKLGiV 


povcrcov 


pvcov 


KpLTGbV 


rapiav 


Dat. 


vUais 


(TKials 


povaais 


pvals 


Kpirals 


rapiais 


Ace. 


vUas 


aKids 


povaas 


pvas 


Kpirds 


raplas 


Voc. 


inKai 


(TKiai 


povcrai 

Dual. 


p.val 


Kpiral 


rapXai 


N.A.V 


. VLKa 


crKia 


povcra 


pva 


KpLTO 


rapla 


G.&D 


. vUaiv 


VKldlV 


povaaiv 


pvaiv 


Kpiralv 


rapiaw. 


Rem. 1. 


The 


gen. plur 


. of nearly all nouns 


of this declension, 


the gen. and dat. 


[)f oxytora 


?s in all numbers, both of this 


and the e 



§ 13.] SECOND DECLENSION. 27 

ond declension, have the circumflex accent on the last syllable ; but 
the feminine forms of adjectives and participles in os, 77 (a), ov, as they 
have the same accent throughout as the masculine, as far as the laws 
of accent will admit, so they do in the gen. plur. 

Rem. 2. In nearly all other cases, the accent of the nom. remains, 
unless it be changed by the general laws of accentuation. 

Rem. 3. Without the article (6, 77, to) the noun corresponds to the 
English noun both with and without a, and with it, to our noun 
with the. 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 

faxf)-) soul. yaA?}, weasel. ytyvpa, bridge. 

cj)c0VT), voice. arrody porch. oi/a'a, house. 

KofjLTji hair. irXevpa^ side. TroAtrT??, citizen. 

K(i)fjLT] 9 village. doga, opinion. Trpobor^, traitor. 

7R/X77, gate. fiaarCkeia, kingdom. TExvtr-qSi artist. 

\\mr), grief. jjLoipa, fate. veavias, young man. 

y?7, earth. fiao-iXeia, queen. 'E/j/z^a)?}?, Mercury. 

Note. Let the pupil be required not only to decline these words 
according to the paradigms, and write them out with their proper 
accent, but also to give the English or Greek for the separate cases, 
as asked by the teacher. The teacher, in this way, may construct 
brief oral exercises w r hich will be of the most useful character to 
the pupil. Thus: What is the meaning of (ficovrjs, 7tvXtj, irpobora, 
etc. 1 Or, What is the Greek for to the side, by fate, O bridge, of the 
citizens, etc. 1 Let all the lists of examples be treated in this way ; 
and let it be understood by the pupil that he must be prepared to 
give the answer to all such questions as may be proposed upon them. 



SECTION II. 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

§ 13. Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Second 

Declension. 

1. Greek nouns of the second declension end in 0$ and 01/, 
the former masculine, feminine, or common, the latter neuter. 

2. The case-endings are : — 



28 



SECOND DECLENSION. 
Plural. 



Singular. 

Nom. os ov 01 a 

Gen. ov (Ep. oio, coo, cov 

Dor. co, cos) 

Dat. co ols (old oicri) 

Ace. ov ovs (iEol. ois, Dor. cos) a 

Voc. e ov ot a 



ft 14. 

Dual 

CO 

oiv (Ep. ouv) 



olv (Ep. oav 

CO 



3. Some nouns (and adjectives) of this declension take co 
throughout in place of the vowels and diphthongs of the above 
endings, and subscribe i where it belongs to the ending. This 
mode of declining is called the Attic second declension, and 
always has the voc. like the nom. 

Rem. A few nouns of this class drop v in the ace. sing. ; as,*AtW — 
A#co, Xayco? — Xaycov or Xayco, ecos — eco, morning; others vary between 
this and the third declension, having cases according to each ; as, 
Mivcosy yeXcos, aXcos ; also, 'AttoXKcov and Uoareibcov in the ace. 

4. Nouns (and adjectives) in eos, oos, eov y oov are con- 
tracted ; aS, OCTTeOV OCTTOVV. 





§14. 


Paradigms 


of Nouns 


of the Second Declension. 




Singular. 


Plural 


Dual. 




word. 


te 




















N. 


Xoyos 


CTVKOV 


Xoyot 


CTVKa 


Xoyco 


crvKco 


G. 


Xoyov 


ctvkov 


\6ycov 


CTVKCOV 


\6yoLV 


CTVKOLV 


D. 


Xoycp 


CTVKCO 


Xoyois 


CTVKOIS 


Xoyoiv 


CTVKOiV 


A. 


Xoyov 


CTVKOV 


Xoyovs 


CTVKa 


Xoyco 


CTVKCO 


V. 


Xoye 


CTVKOV 


Xoyot 


CTVKa 


Xoyco 


CTVKCO. 




Singular. 


Plural 


Dual 




temple. 


IIULI,. 










N. 


vecos 


avcoyecov 


veco 


dvcoyeco 


veco 


avoayeco 


G. 


V€CO 


dvcoyeco 


vecov 


avcoyecov 


vecov 

■ 


avcoyecov 


D. 


veco 


avcoyeco 


vecos 


avcoyecos 


veccv 

i 


avcoyecov 


A. 


VCCOV 


avcoyecov 


vecos 


civcoyeco 


veco 


civcoyeco 


V. 


vecos 


avcoyecov 


veco 


avcoyeco 


veco 


civcoyeco. 



14.J 




SECOND DECLENSION. 




Norn. 


Singular, 
sailing. 
irkoos 7r\ovs 


bone, 
ourkov 


OCTTOVV 


Gen. 


7t\6oV 


7r\0V 


oarkov 


OCTTOV 


Dat. 


7rXoe0 


7tXg> 


octtcco 


OCTTCd 


Ace. 


ttKoov 


ttXovv 


oorrkov 


OCTTOVV 


Voc. 


7r\6e 


ttXou 

Plural. 


ocrTeov 


OCTTOVV 


Nom. 


7r\6oi 


7rXot 


oaria 


OCTTCL 


Gen. 


ttKocov 


7tXg)j/ 


octtccdv 


OCTTCOV 


Dat. 


ifkoOLS 


7r\o7s 


OCTT€OLS 


OCTTo'lS 


Ace. 


irkoovs 


7t\ov$ 


6 erred 


OCTTCL 


Voc. 


ttKooi 


ttXoI 

Dual 


6o~Tea 


ocna 


N. A. V. 7rAo'a> 


7rXa). 


6ctt€co 


OCTTCO 


G.&D. 


7tX6olu 


7t\o1v 


octtcolv 


OCTTolv. 



29 



Rem. 1. The voc. sing, is sometimes like the nom. ; as, a> Oeos, 
a> cfiikoS' 

Rem. 2. For examples of adjectives of the Attic declension, am 
of contract adjectives, see under the adjectives. 

Rem. 3. The masc. and neut. of adjectives and participles in os 
77, ov are declined like the above nouns with these endings. 

Rem. 4. For the accent, see the general rules and § 11, R. 1. 
But the gen. sing, of oxytones in cos retains this accent, contrary to 
the general usage in this declension ; the accent of cideXcpe, also, from 
adekefios, is irregular. 



EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 



7rora/xoy, river. 
vofios, pasture. 

VOfJLOS, law. 

vovs, mind, 
cvpos, breadth. 
Tavpos, bull. 

oIko$, house. 



kLvSwos, danger. 
Xecta, people. 
Xaycos-, h are. 
pohoV) rose, 
avrpov, cave. 

doypov, gift. 

IfjLdTiov, garment. 



qbappaKov, medicine. 
koXos, rj, oV, beautiful. 
aio~xp6s) <*, 6V, shameful* 
cfiavXoS) 77, 01/, mean. 
Btios, a, 01/, divine. 

hiKaios, a, 01/, just. 

avdpcomvos, t], ov, human 



30 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 15. 



SECTION III. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 

§ 15. Classification and Endings of Nouns of the Third 

Declension. 

1. Nouns of the third declension have various endings in 
the nom., but these are not generally the true endings of the 
root or stem of the word, s being often added in the nom., 
and the preceding consonant dropped or changed according to 
the laws of euphony, or r, kt being rejected from the root or 
changed into s or p, or the final vowel being changed. The 
true stem may generally be found in the gen. by rejecting 
the ending -os. 

Rem. 1. For the changes of consonants before s, and other eu- 
phonic changes of consonants in declension, see § 4. 

2. The following are the endings of the different cases : — 

Singular. Plural. Dual. 

N. -ors es, neuter a e 

G. OS, (OS COV QIV (Ep. Oliv) 

D. X cri (Ep. ecr(o-)t, Dor. oiv (Ep. oiiv) 

acr(cr)t) 

A. v, a as a € 

V. generally like nom. cs a e 

3. The gen. sing, of nouns in evy, and of most in ??, vs 
(short), ends in ews-, the t and v of the nom., in the last two 
endings, being changed to e in all the cases of all numbers, 
except the ace. and voc. sing. There is the same change of 
vowel, also, in neuters in X and £, but the gen. sing, almost 
invariably ends in eos. But in words in evs, when a vowel 
precedes the ending, the e is generally rejected by contrac- 
tion in all the cases of the sing, and plur. except before v ; as, 
Xoevs, xoeW or x°^ s f X oe ' a or X "* 



§ 15.] THIRD DECLENSION. 31 

Rem. 2. But in the tragic and comic writers, the genitive sing. 
of nouns in is is sometimes eos, and in the Ionic and Doric dialects 
neither the i nor v is changed in the cases. Sometimes, also, these 
vowels are not changed in the Attic, especially in adjectives in is, i, 
whose root does not end in a consonant, and in certain poetic nouns, 
all in is, except ey^eXt; s, which does not change v in the sing. ; as, 
'id pis, i (gen. tdpios), ydo-rpis, %kdms, drjpis, s lpis, kcktls, fidyabis, 
urjvis, nopris, etc. 

4. Nouns in evs, is, and vs (short) are all contracted 
into ei in the dat. sing., and into eis in the nom., ace, and 
voc. plural (but into vi and vs, from vs — long — in words of 
more than one syllable) ; while those in X, v, rjs and os 
(both from cs) are contracted in the dat. singular into et, 
and in the nom., ace, and voc. plural (the last two in the 
dual also) into rj ; and in the gen. sing, those in rjs and os 
into ovs. In most cases the contracted forms are the ones 
chiefly used in the Attic dialect, except the ace. sing, and 
plur. from evs. 

5. Nouns in avs and ovs are contracted only in the ace. 
plur. ; but many neuters in as, whose root ends in r, reject 
the r, and are then contracted with the preceding vowel in 
all the cases of all numbers, except in the nom., ace, and 
voc. sing., and the dat. plur. The nouns to Senas and to o-e\as, 
too, whose root does not end in r, are contracted in the dat. 
sing, and the nom., ace, and voc. plur. ; as, o-eha't = o-iXa, 

aeXaa == <reXa. 

6. When the root of mase and fern, nouns ends in a con* 
sonant (except sometimes, mostly in poetry, where the conso- 
nant is a tern-mute before the unaccented endings is and vs), 
the ace sing, ends in the vowel a ; but where it ends in the 
vowels i, v, av, and ov (from nom. is, vs, avs t and ovs), the ace 
ends in the consonant v, except in ftovs, evpvs, lx&vs, vavs, and 
7roXt?, which, in the Epic dialect, not unfrequently have the 
ace in a. 

7. The voc. sing, is often like the nom. ; but generally like 
the root, when the root is changed in the nom. by lengthening 
the final e or o into y or » (which, however, is usually re- 



32 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



[§16. 



tained in the voc. when it is accented), or dropping or changing 
consonants before ? ; as, prjrop (nom. prjrcop), avtp (dvtjp), ylyav 
(the full form of the root being yiyavr, of which r is dropped, 
since it cannot stand at the end of a Greek word), plu (from 
pty, 1. e. pivs). 

Rem. 3. In like manner, also, we have ^AwoXXov, Uoo-eiftov, 
acorep, although the root of these words ends in a long vowel. 
The accent, too, in these words, is thrown back to the first syllable, 
contrary to the general rule. 

8. Also nouns in is, vs, civs, ovs, whose root does not end in 
a consonant, have the voc. like the root, the s of the nom. 
being rejected ; the word irais also has iral. 

Rem. 4. The ending 9js is sometimes found in the old Attic, in- 
stead of the plural ending ees-, els, from nouns in evs ;_ as, pacriXees 
-els, -rjs. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



§16. Paradigms of Nouns of the Third Declension. 

Singular. 
6, animal. 6, lion. 17, nose. 17, vein, rj, flame. 6, fj, bird. 

Brjp Xecov pis (piXe^ <fiX6£ opvis 

flrjpos Xeovros pivos (fiXeftos (fiXoyos opviBos 

Brjpi Xeovri ptvi (fiXe^i (pXoyi opviBi 

Brjpa XeovTa piva (fiXefta (j)X6ya opviv (or-#a) 

Brjp Xeov plv <fiXe\js <fiX6£ opvis 

Plural. 

Brjp€S Xeovres pives (fiXc/Bes (fiXoyes opviBes 

Brjpcov XeovTcov pivcov (j)Xe[3cbp (fiXoycov opviBcov 

Brfpcrl Xeov&i picrl (pXeyj/i (pXo£i opvicri 

Brjpas Xeovras plvas (fiXt&as <pX6yas opviBas 

Brjpes Xeovres plves (pXeftes (pXoyes opviBes 

Dual 

Xeovre plve <fiXe[3e (pXoye opviBe 



N.A.V.%<r 

G. &/ D. Bnpolv Xeovroiv pivolv (pXeftolv <j)Xoyo7v opvLBoiV, 



§16.] 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



33 



Singular. 





6, king. 


to, body. 


to, ear. 6, jackal 


6, worm. 6 


, 7) , swine. 


N. 


ava£ 


crcopa 


(a)?) ovs Oojs 


KLS 


crvs 


G. 


CLVCLKTOS 


craparos 


oaros Ocoos 


KLOS 


crvos 


D. 


aVCLKTl 


(japan 


COTL ucol 


icd 


crvi 


A. 


avatcra 


crcopa 


ovs 6ol>a 


KLV 


crvv 


V. 


t r- .>/ 
ava£, ava 


crwpa 


ovs Sons 

Plural. 


KLS 


crvs 


N. 


avaKT€S 


crcopara 


gotcl flcocs 


KL€S 


aves 


G. 


aVCLKTCOV 


crcopdrcov 


WTCOV 6a>cov 


KL(DV 


ovcov 


D. 


ava£i 


cr&pacri 


» J A ' 
(OCTL OCOCTL 


KLCTL 


crvcrl 


A. 


aVCLKTCLS 


crcopara 


o)ra 60x1s 


Kias 


crvas 


V. 


avaKTes 


croapara 


wra flues 

Dual 


KL€S 


0~V€S 


N.A.V 


avaKTe 
avaKTOis 


crwpare 


are 6 one 


Ki€ 


crve 


G. &D. 


croaparoiv 


&TOLV Baoiv 


KLolv 


crvolv. 






CONTRACTS. 












Singular. 








i), galley. 


to, race. 6, fish. 


7), echo. 6, 7), sheep. 


N. 


TpLTJpTJS 


ykvos 


lx@vs 


fan 


ois 


G. 


Tpl7]p€OS -ovs yeveos 


-ovs Ix^vos 


tjxoos -ovs 


1 > 

OLOS 


D. 


rpirjpe'i -et 


ykvti - 


€L Ix6vl -vl 


7]X0'i "OL 


oil 


A. 


TpL-qpea ~it] 


yevos 


Ix^vv 


Tjxoa -co 


OLV 


V. 


rpirjpes 


ykvos 


l X 0v 
Plural. 


t) X oI 


OLS 


N 


TpLTjpees -eis yevea • 


7] IxOves -vs 


like sec. 


-9 
OL€S 


G. 


rpirjpecov • 


nv yevecov 


•COV Ix^vcov 


dec. 


olcov 


D. 


Tpirjpecn 


yevco-L 


Ixdvo-t, 




OLCTL 


A. 


rptrjpeas ~eis yevea • 


7j IxOvas m vs 




oiaff, ots 


V. 


TpiT)p€€S "€LS yeV€d • 


•Tj IxOves m vs 




ofcs 








Dual. 






N.A.V 


Tpifjpee -77 


yevee 


•rj lx@ve 


like sec. 


9 
ote 


G.&D 


, TpirfpeoiP - 


oiv yeveoiv -olv ix^voiv 


dec. 


ololv* 



34 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



[§16. 



77, siaie. to, mustard, to, city. 

aarrv 

a<TT€OS 



Singular. 
6, king. 6, cubit. 77, state. 

N. jSa&ikevs 7ttj\vs noKis a warn 

G. fiao-iktctis 7rr)X €0S ' eo)S noKeos -ecos (Tivaireos 

D. fiacrikel -el tt^X 61 " €L 7r6Xe'i -ei aivaiTei -et aarei -ei 

A. fiavikia -77 7rf)xyv irokiv nivairi ao~rv 

V. /3acrtXeO ^X^ 7rdXt vivcmi aorv 

Plural 

N. /3acri\€€s -eis 7rr)X €€s " €iS voX^cs -as cnvdnea -77 aorea -77 

G. j3ao~i\€CdV 7rr)X €c0V ttoXccov o-Lvanecov do~T€cov 

D. /3acrtXe€cri 7rf)x €(rL 7rdXecri cnvdirtvi aVrccrt 

A. fiao~iXeas -el? 7rr}X eas ~ €LS 7rdXea? -et? o-ivdirea =77 aorea -7/ 

V. /SacrtAee? -ei? 7rT}X €€S " €LS ttoXecs -et? o-ivdrrea -77 aarea -77 



N.A. 


V. 


/SacrtXee 


Trfoee 


7rdXee 


divanee acrree 


G.&D. 


/3ao-tXeoii> 


7T7]X£01V 


iroXeoiv 


(TLvairkoLV dcjTeoiv. 








Singular. 








to, horn. 




to, prize. 


Pericles. 


N. 




Kepas 




yepas 


HepLKXerjs -rjs 


G. 




Keparos -paos -pcos 


yepaos -pcos 


JJepiKkeeos -eovs 


D. 




K€pciTi -pat ■ 


pa 


yepa'i •pa 


IlepiKkee'i -eet -et 


A. 




Kepas 




yepas 


ILepLKXeea -ka -77 


V. 




Kepas 




yepas 


UepUXees -et? 








Plural. 


Socrates. 


N. 




Kepara -paa 


•pa 


y'epaa -pa 


^coKparrfs 


G. 




Kepdrcov -pdcov -pcbv 


yepdcov 'pcov 


ScoKpdreos -ovs 


D. 




K€pdO~l 




yepao~i 


^coKpdre'L -et 


A. 




Kepara -paa 


•pa 


yepaa -pa 


2coKpdrea -77 (also rjv) 


V. 




Kepara -paa 


•pa 
Dual. 


yepaa ~pa 


*2coKpares. 


N.A. 


V 


. Kepare -pae 


•pa 


yepae ~pa 





G. & D. Kcpdrow -pdoiv -pcov yepdoiv -pcov. 

Rem. 1. There is one noun in as (viz. aiSoas) declined like 77^0), 
in the common Attic, and some others in the dialects ; as, r)d>s> Par- 



§16.] 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



35 



ticular anomalies and irregularities will be found in the list of anoma- 
lous nouns to follow. 

Rem. 2. The accent of most monosyllabic nouns and adjectives, 
instead of remaining as long as the laws of accent will admit, accord- 
ing to the general rule, upon the same syllable as in the nom., is 
thrown upon the last syllable in the gen. and dat. of all numbers (see 
the paradigms). But in some monosyllables the accent is thus 
changed, without reason, only in the gen. and dat. sing, and dat. 
plur., viz. in dfias, Bdos, KPA2, nais, 0-779, Tpas* Some words, also, 
which become monosyllabic by contraction (and a few longer words), 
change the accent thus to the last syllable, either according to the 
one or the other of these classes. 

Rem. 3. As to the gender of nouns of this declension there are 
the following general rules : — 

a) Masculine. All nouns in av, vv, as (gen. avos, avros), cvs, rj£, 
and most in r\v, cov (covos, ovtos, covtos), np, €ip, vp, cop, ns (tjtos), ovs, 
cos (coos, cotos, coftos), and \jr. 

b) Feminine. Nouns in as (gen. ados), avs, ivs, vvs, co and cos (6os) 9 
abstract nouns in ottjs, vttjs, and most in ets, ts and w, vs, and 
cov (ovos). 

c) Neuter. All nouns in a, rj, op, cop, os, 1, v, and those in ap, as 
(gen. aros, aos), and contracts in rjp, except 6 tyctp, 6 Xay. 



EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 



r) 7riVa£, clkos, tablet, 
r) a\a>7T77f, eKOSifox. 
o, riPfe x<fc,.C0ttgft. 
to crrofia^ aros 1 , mouth. 

to KTrjfMa^ arosi possession. 

r) iXms, tdos, hope, 

7) epty, tSof, strife. 

6 fxtjv^ p,r]v6si month. 

6 XifMTjv^ evos, harbor. 

6 a£cov, ovos, axle. 

r) drjddiVi 6vos 9 nightingale* 

6 ayKeav, avos, elbow. 



to opos, ovs, mountain. 

r) albas, ovs, shame. 

r) veiQco, ovs, persuasion. 

'SocfioKkrjS) eovst Sophocles, 
yjsevdfjs, ovs, false. 
7r\f)pr]Si ovs, full. 

6 linrevSi €0)s, horseman. 
6 fxdpTiS) €cos 9 prophet. 

6 7re\€Kvs, €cos, axe. 
Taxys, eos, SWlft. 

6 /ivy, v6s, mouse. 

6 cTTaxvsy vos 9 ear of grain, 



36 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 17. 

§ 17. Anomalous and Defective Nouns, chiefly of the Third 

Declension. 

Nouns are said to be anomalous, when more or less of 
their cases are inconsistent with each other in form, accord- 
ing to the general rules of declension in the language ; they 
are said to be defective, when they want one or more of their 
cases. When they have but a single form, they are said to 
be indeclinable. The following list contains the chief of 
these nouns in common use, both of the third and the other 
declensions. 

drjSav, ovos (f], nightingale), reg. ; also Gen. drjbovs, Voc. drjbol. 
J Ai&7?, ov (6, Hades), reg. ; also Gen. "Mbos, Dat. "A'ibi. 
okicf), 9)9 (fj, strength), reg. ; also Dat. oXkl. 

ak(f)L (to, meal), for akcfiiTOV or akfyiTa. 

akcos (r), threshing-floor), of the Attic sec. dec. with Ace. oXo ; 

also of the third dec, Gen. coos or covos, etc. 
dvbpdirobov, ov (to, slave) ; and Dat. Plur. Epic dvbpaTrobto-o-i. 

dvrjp (6, man), G. dvepos dvbpos, D. dvkpi dvbpi, A. dvepa civSpa, 
V. avep ; Plur. dp6p€S apbpes, G. dvepa>v dvdpcov, D. dvbpdat av- 
bpearcri, A. dvepas avbpas, V. dvepes avbpes ', Dual dvepe avbpe, avk- 
poiv dvbpolv. 

dpvos (tov, ttjs, of the lamb, dp,v6s serving as nom.), D. dpvi, reg. 

except D. Plur. dpvdo-i. 
do-TTjp, €pos (6, star), reg. except D. Plur. do-Tpdo-i. 
(Bovs (6, f), ox, cow), G. /3oos-, D. /W, A. fiovv (poet, fioa), V. fiov ; 

Plur. fioes, G. j3ow, D. fiova-i (Ep. fceacri), A. (Boas fiovs § 

Dual /3o6, fioolv. 
yao-Trjp (rj, belly), epos, reg. except being contracted in the G. 

and D. Sing., and having the D. Plur. in ao-i (rare rjpo-i), like 

6vyaTT)p. 
ye\<os, (dtos or o> (6, laughter), 
y\d<j)v (to, cave), defective, for ykafyvpov. 
yoi^u (to, knee), G. yovaros, other cases regular from yovaT- as 

stem, or yovvar- Epic and Ionic ; except that some of the 



§ 17.] THIRD DECLENSION. 37 

Epic forms are contracted ; as, G. yowos, D. yowl ; Plur. 
N. yovva, G. yovvcov, D. yovvacri. 

ypavs (17, old woman), G. ypaos, etc., after the analogy of /3o€y. 
But in the Ionic it becomes yprjvs or yprjvs', and so in the 
other cases. 

yvvrj (f), woman), G. ywatKos, D. yvvaiK.1, A. ywal/ca, V. yvvai ; 
Plur. ywalfces, G. yvvaiKcov, D. yvvai^i, A. yvvalzas, V. -yvj/atKes" ; 
Dual yvi/cu*e, ywatKoti/. In the comic writers ywi) is some- 
times declined as though of the first declension. 

haKpvov (to, a tear), reg., and the older poetic form bdicpv, from 
which the D. Plur. baKpvm, found in Attic prose, comes. 

Sepais (to, body), defective. 

devdpov (to, tree), ov, reg. ; also bevbpeo-i, deubprj, from to bevdpos. 

deo-noTrjs (6, master), ov, reg., and also A. Sing, and Plur. deano- 
Tea, deanoTeas. 

ArjprjTrjp (fj, Demeter). Like the Sing, of BvyaTrjp. 

dopv (to, spear). Like yow, with the additional poetic forms 

G. bopos, D. bopi, N. Plur. boprj. 
bco (to, house), Epic for bcop,a, bcbp,aTa. 

cIkcov (fj, image), ovos, reg. ; also G. elicovs, A. cIkco, PI. A. elicovs. 
Zevs (6, Zeus, Jupiter), G. Aids, D. Ad, A. Ala, V. Zev. Also 

Zr\v, Zrjvos, Zrjvi, Zrjva. 

fjpcos (6, hero), coos, reg. ; also D. fjpcp, A. tfpco, A. PL rjpcos. 

QaXrjs, G. QaXeco, D. Oa\fj, A. QaXrjv ; later 9aXoO and QoX^tos^ 
-tjtl, -r]Ta. 

Bepts, ibos, 10s, ltos, lo-Tos (r), justice), A. Bepiv ; also the form Bepis 

as the subject of an infin. in Homer. 
deparrcov, ovtos (6, attendant), reg. ; and also A. Sing. Sepaira, N. 

Plur. Bepanes. 

BvyaTrjp (r), daughter), G. BvyaTepos OvyaTpos, D. BvyaTepi Bvyarpl, 
A. BvyaTtpa BvyaTpa (poetic), V» Bvyarep ; Plur. N. BvyaTepes 
BvyaTpes (poetic), G. BvyaTepcov BvyaTpwv (poetic), D. BvyaTpa- 
o-fc, A. BvyaTepas, V. BvyaTepes; Dual Bvyarepe, BvyaTepoiv. 

IktIvqs, ov (6, hawk), reg. ; and also, A. licriva, N. PL iKrtz/es. 

Kapa, Ion. *ap?7 (to, ifAe head), G. KaprjTos KpdaTOS Kparos KaprjaTOS 

' 4 



38 THIRD DECLENSION. [§ 17, 

and rrjs Kparos, D. KaprjTi Kpdan Kpari Kaprjari Kapa Kaprj, A. Kapa 
Kaprj, and to or tov Kpaxa ; PI. N. Kapfjara Kapa, G. Kparcov, D. 
Kpacri, A. Kaprjara Kpdara and tovs Kparas. 

Kkdbos, ov (6, bough), reg. ; and D. Sing. jc\a&', D. Plur. KXaSeo-i. 

KXei's (Ion. KXrjts, old Att. KA^y), (77, Are?/), G. /cAeiSos (Kkrjtdos, 

icXydos)) reg. ; but also A. KXaz>, PL N. and A. kXcIs. 
koivcdvos (6 and rj, partaker), ov, reg. ; but also, N. and A. PL 

Koivcoves, Kotvcovas. 
Kpivov (to, lily), ov, reg. ; also Plur. N. Kplvea, D. Kpivecn. 
kvcov (6, 77, dog, bitch), G. kwos, D. kwL, A. Kui>a, V. ktW ; PL 

N. kvvcs, G. kvvgzv, D. Kucrt, A. Kwas ; Dual kvv€, kvvoIv. 
Xaas, Xas (6, Stone), G. Xoos 1 Aaov, D. XaV, A. Xaav \au \aa (rare), 

D. PL \deaai. 
AtVa (to, oil), used chiefly as a Dat. 
/laA^ (armpit), a defective Gen. 
fidprvs, later fxdprvp (6, witness), vpos, reg. from the last form ; 

also fidpTvv occasionally in A. Sing. 
fiTjrrjp (tj, mother), like dvydrrjp, but not contracted in the Plur. 

except in the Dat. 
vavs (rj, ship), vaos, reg. like ypavs. But Attic G. veas, D. vr)t t 

A. vavv ; PL N. i^es, G. i>ea>j>, D. vavvi, A. z>aOs ; Dual G. D. 

veolv. The Ionic changes a into 77 ; as, j^Oy, i^os, i^i*, i^a ; it 

has, too, G. veos, A. via ; PL N. rees, G. vecov, A. j/eay ; Dual 

G. D. veolv. 
OlbtiTOvs (6, (Edipus) , G. Oldlrrodos, Ol$i7rov, Oi§t7ro§ao, Oi&7roSa, 

OiSt7ro5ea), D. OlbiTTodc, Oldnrodr), A. Oidinoda, Olb'nrovv, Olbnro- 

hrjv, V . OiStVov, OtSi7roSa. 

oveipov (to, dream), or oveipos, ov, reg. ; but commonly G. <W- 
paTos, D. ovelpciTi ; PL N. and A. SvelpaTa oveipa (rare), G. 

oveipaTcov, D. oveipao-i, derived from to orap. 

opz/ir (see the paradigm) ; also PL N. opveis opvis, G. opveav. 

naTrjp (6, father), like \ir\rr\p. 

Uvv^ (fj, Pnyx, place of meeting for the Athenian Assem- 
bly), G. Uvkvos, etc., from the stem ttvkv. Only later Uw 
k6s, etc. 



§ 17.] THIRD DECLENSION. 39 

TrpeorPevrrjs (6, ambassador), ov, reg. in Sing. ; but PL N. and 

A. Trpeo-jSeis, G. 7rpeo-/3ea)i/, D. 7rpeo-/3ecri, from irpecrfivs. 
7rp€orj3vTT]s (6, oZtZ man), ov, reg. ; but also irpeo-fivs, A. irpio-fivv, 

V. Trpko-fiv ; PL N. 7rpeo-/3ets. 
7Tp6(Tco7TOV (to, face), ov t reg. ; also N. PL 7rpocra>7rara, D. 7rpoo~a>- 

7ra<7t. 
npoxoos (17., pitcher) , oov, reg. ; also D. PL irpoxovcri. 
Trvp (to, fire), 7Tvp6$, reg. ; also PL nvpd, G. irvpcov, D. irvpols, 
o~f)s (6, moth), creos, later o^tos. 

o-Itos (6, grain), ov, reg. in. Sing., but Plur. orra (rtria (rare). 
o-raStoi/ (to, stade), ov, etc. ; but Plur. more commonly ora&oi. 
o-radfios (6, station, stall) ; Plur. o-ratf/xoi and arTaOfid. 
otixos (6, row), ov, reg. ; also G. r^s o-rtxos'j D. 777 cmxh etc. 
ray; as a> rdV, goocZ siY, O friend, sometimes, O friends, 
raws (6, peacock), reg. of Attic sec. dec. ; but also N. PL raoi, 

and some forms as if from raw, avos. 
rtypis, 10s or idos (6, rj, tiger), reg. except PL N. rLypeis, G. rt- 

ypeoov. 

vdap (to, water), G. v&zroy, D. u6an vd« (rare) ; PL N. and A. 

vdaTa, G. vbaTcov, D. vdacri. 
vlos (6, son), ov, reg. Also G. ineos, D. vU7, etc., like fiao-ikevs. 

And Epic, G. vlbsr, D. v«, A. via ; PL N. vies, D. i/Jeo-i or 

vtdo't, A. via?; Dual vie. 
vo~p.lvT] (r), battle), rjs, reg. ; but also D. vapuvi. 
XeLp (17, hand), x €t P°*i re g- except x^P^ Dat. Plur. Also the 

poetic forms, G. x c P° s > D. x e /> l '» Dual x € P°~ lv ' 
X&idav (rj, swallow), 6vos, reg. ; also V. xeXtdoi. 
xpecoy (to, debt), G. ^peas ; also G. xp^ ovs t e ^ c "> re S- fr° m XP* 0S * 
xp&s (6, skin), G. xp<° T °$i D. x/>a>Ti ( a l so X/ 3 *?* i* 1 tne Phrase 

«* XP<?)> etc - 



40 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. [§ 18. 

SECTION IV. 

DECLENSION AND COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 

§ 18. Classification of Adjectives and Participles. 

1. Adjectives either have a separate ending for each of 
the three genders, or one in common for the masc. and fern, 
and one for the neuter, or one for the masc. and fern, and 
none for the neuter. But all participles have three endings. 

2. The special feminine forms of all adjectives and partici- 
ples are declined like feminine nouns of the first declension, 
while all masculine forms in os (cos Attic), together with the 
neuter forms in ov (o>i> Attic), in the same words, are declined 
after the second declension, and all other forms of the mascu- 
line and neuter of adjectives and participles, after the third 
declension. 

3. The rules, therefore, which have been given for the 
declension of nouns apply equally to the declension of adjec- 
tives and participles. 

Rem. 1. The principal difference between the declension of the 
participle and the adjective or nonn is, that the voc. masc. of partici- 
ples is always the same as the nom. 

4. Most adjectives in os (with almost no exceptions in com- 
paratives and superlatives) have three endings ; yet many 
compound adjectives and some primitives have but two end- 
ings, especially in Attic writers and the poets. 

5. Adjectives in as*, qy, eis, us, and of those in o>z>, £k&» and 
aKoov, have three endings. 

6. Adjectives in eo?, ea, eov and o'oc, 6r] (6a with a p before 
o), 6ov may be contracted into ovs, r) (ea in a, when p pre- 
cedes), ovv, and then declined like contract nouns of the 
first and second declensions with the same endings. 

7. Adjectives in rjs, es ; is, t ; cos, cov (of the Attic sec. dec.) ; 
coy, ov (except €kg>v, aKcov), and those in ovs, avv, compounds of 
voiis and 7rXoi)y, have only two endings. 



§19.] 



DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



41 



§ 19. Paradigms of Adjectives and Participles. 



I. WITH THREE ENDINGS. 







Singular. 








Plural. 




N. 


KaX6s 


KaXrj 


KaXov 




KaXoi 


KaXal 


KaXd 


G. 


KaXov 


KaXrjs 


KaXov 




KaXcbv 


KaXcop 


KaXcov 


D. 




KaXfj 


KaXS 

c 




KaXols 


KaXals 


KaXols 


A. 


KaXov 


KaXfjv 


Kakov 




KaXov s 


KaXds 


KaXd 


V. 


KaAe 


Kakf) 


KaXov 


Dual. 


KaXoi 


KaXal 


KaXd 






N. A. 


V. KOXA 


(m. 


&> n.) KaX 


a 








G. D. 


KaXolv (m 


. &/ D.) KaX 


axv» 





Rem. 1. When e, t, or p precedes os, the fern, has a throughout, 
as in the noun. All participles in os are declined as the above. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



N. 


Tras 


Tracra 


irav 


iravres 


irao-ai 


irdpra 


G. 


iravros 


TTao-rjs 


TtaVTOS 


TrdvTcov 


TraoSiV 


iravrcov 


D. 


Travrl 


Trdcrrj 


iravri 


ttckti 


irdcrais 


ttclo-l 


A. 


navra 


Travai 


TTCLV 


irdvras 


irdo-as 


irdvTa 


V. 


7TCLS 


Traa-a 


TTCLV 


7TaVT€S 


iraa-ai 


Tvdvra 



Dual. 
N. A. V. ivavre (m. &, n.) wdo-a 
G. D. Tvdvroiv (m..&> n.) Trdo-aiv. 

Rem. 2. The other two adjectives iu as, /xeXas and rdXas (G. 
avos), have a lengthened ending for the fern, in aiva\ and, in like 
manner, the two adjectives in rjv, reprjv and apo-qv or apprjv (G. evos)', 
have a lengthened ending in eiva. All participles in as are declined 
like the above ; also, participles in vs, vaa, vv ; as, detKvvs deiKvvaa 
deiKvvv, G. vvtos, vo-qs. 



N. x a P^ €ls 
G. xapUvros 
D. x a p' L€VrL 
A. x a P l£VTa 
V. x a P uv 



Singular. 

XapUcrcra x a P L€V 

Xapieo-o-rjs x a P L€VT0S 

Xapieoraj] x a P l€VTl 

XapUcrcrav x a P l€V 

XapUcraa x a P l€V 



Plural. 

XapUvTcs x a P^ €<TcraL X a p' L€VTa 

Xapievrcov x a P L€0 ~°'^ >u X a P l * VT( * >v 

XapUvi x a P i * (TO ' aLS X a p' L€a ' 1 

XapUvras x a P L ^ (T0 ' as X a P l€VTa 

Xapievres x a P^ €(rcra1 ' X a P l€VTa 



42 



DECLENSION OE THE ADJECTIVE, 



[§19, 



Dual. 
N. A. V. x a p' l€VT€ ( m » &> n -) x a P l * (r(Ta 
G. D. x a P L * VTOlv ( m » & n.) xapikatraiv. 







Singular. 






Plural. 




N. 


Xvdeis 


\vBeUra 


XvBev 


XvBevres 


XvBelo-ai 


XvBevra 


G. 


XvBevros 


XvBeiarjs 


XvBeVTOS 


XvBtVrCDV 


XvBeiCTUV 


XvBevrcov 


D. 


XvBevri 


XvBelo-g 


XvBkvTl 


XvBelcri 


XvBeiaais 


XvBelo-f, 


A. 


XvBevra 


XvBelcrav 


XvBev 


XvBevras 


XvBelo~as 


XvBevra 


V. 


XvBels 


XvBelcra 


XvBev 


XvBevres 


XvBelaai, 


XvBevra 



Rem. 



Dual. 
N. A. V. XvBevre (m. & II.) XvBelaa 
G. D. XvBevroiv (m. &/ n.) XvBelcraiv, 

3. All participles in eis are declined like XvBeis ; also par- 







Singular. 


N. 


Xvcov 


Xvovo-a 


G. 


XvOVrOS 


Xvovcrqs 


D. 


XvOVTl 


Xvovo"rj 


A. 


Xvovra 


Xvovcrav 


V. 


XllCOV 


Xvovaa 





Plural. 




Xvovres 


Xvovo~ai 


Xvovra 


Xvovrcov 


Xvovo-cqv 


XvOVTCOV 


Xvovcri 


Xvovo^ais 


Xvovcri. 


Xvovras 


Xvovaas 


Xvovra 


Xl)OVT€S 


Xvowai 


Xvovra 



ticiples in ovs, ovaa, 6v ; as, didovs, bidovcra, diftov, Gf. ovros, ovo~r}s. 
Some adjectives in eis (like vaptets-) with rj or o before eis contract the 
rj or o with that ending, making fjs, rjo~cra, r)v, and ous, ovaaa, ovv 
(Ep. uncontracted, oeiv). 



Xvov 

Xvovros 

Xvovri 

Xvov 

Xvov 

Dual. 
N. A. V. Xvovre (m. &L n.) Xvova-a 
G. D. Xi/oiroiz> (m. & n.) Ai/ouo"aij/. 

Singular. Plural. 

icXivovora kXlvovv kXivovvtcs Kkivovcrai Kkivovvra 

G. kXivovvtos kXivovotjs kXivovvtos kXivovvtcdv kXivovctcdv kXivovvtcdv 
D. kXivovvtl kXivovcttj kXivovvti kXivovcti Kkivovcrais kXivovcti 
KXivovo-av kXivovv KXivovvras Kkivovo~as Kkivovvra 

KXivovcra kXivovv kXivovvtcs Kkivovo-ai Kkivovvra 

Dual. 
N. A. V. kXivovvtc (m. & n.) KXivovcra 
G. D. kXivovvtoiv (m. &/ n.) Kkivovcraw. 



N. kX 



IVCOV 



A. Kkivovvra 
V. kXivcdv 



§19.] 



DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



43 



Rem. 4. All un contracted participles in a>v are declined like 
Xvcov, except that the part, of the second aor. starts with the accent 
on the last syllable in the nom. The fut. part, of liquid verbs, and 
the contracted forms of the part, of contracted verbs in eoo and oo>, are 
declined like kKlvcov ; but the contracted form of the part, of verbs in 
aco retains co throughout; as, Ttficov Tifxcocra rifxcov, G. TifMcovros rifxcocrrjs 
TifjicovTos, etc. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



N. 


TjCJVS 


TjOeia 


fjftv 


rjdees 


-els 


rjdelai 


rjdia 


G. 


rjtjeos 


fjdelas 


rjdeos 


TjCJ€Ct)V 




rjheitov 


fjftecov 


D. 


rjde'i -el 


rjdela 


f) Set -et 


r}becrL 




Tjdeiais 


fjdecri 


A. 


rjdvv 


fjbeiav 


rjdv 


fjdeas 


-et? 


f)8elas 


rjdea 


V. 


■fjdv 


rjbela 


f)dv 


77 Sees 


-els 


rjdelai 


■qbia 



Dual. 
N. A. V. r)8U (m. &, n.) rjdela G. D. rjdioiv (m. & n.) $Maiv. 

Rem. 5. The* forms in ea, in the neut. plur., are not contracted 
in adjectives th vs, it will be observed, as they are in neuter nouns in 
v of the third dec. ; nor is the Attic ending ecos used in the gen. sing, 
masc, as it is in nouns. In the Ionic dialect the fern, form is gener- 
ally ea or ctj instead of eta ; and in the Epic the masc. form is often 
used as fem. 

Plural. 

XeXvKores XeXu/ctnat XeXvKora 

XekvKOTcov XcXvkvlcov XeXvKOTCOV 

XeXvKocrL XekvKvlais XeXvKocri 

XeXvKoras XzXvKvias XeXvKora 

\e\vKOT€s XeXv/cutat XeXvKora 



Singular. 
N. XeXvicas XeXvicvla XeXvKos 
G. XcXvkotos XeXvKvias XcXvkotos 
D. XcXvkoti XeXvKvla XcXvkotl 
A. XeXvKora XeXvicvlav XzXvkos 
V. XeXvicas XeXvKvla XeXvKos 

Dual. 
N. A. V. XeXweore (m. & n.) 

G. D. 



XeXvicvia 
XcXvkotolv (m. & n.) XeXvKvlaiv. 







Singular 






Plural. 




N. 


XPV(T€0S 


Xpvcrea 


Xpvcreov 


XpvcreoL 


Xpvcreat, 


Xpvcrea 




Xpvcrovs 


Xpvrf 


Xpvcrovv 


Xpvcrol 


Xpvcral 


Xpvcra 


G. 


Xpvarov 


Xpwrjs 


Xpvcrov 


XpvcrSv 


Xpvcrcov 


Xpvcrcov 


D. 


Xpvao} 


Xpvafj 


Xpwa 


Xpvcrols 


Xpvcrals 


Xpvcrols 


A. 


Xpvcrovv 


Xpvrfv 


Xpvcrovv 


Xpvcrovs 


Xpvcras 


Xpvcra 


T. 


Xpvcrovs 


Xpvcrrj 


Xpvcrovv 


Xpvcrol 


Xpvcral 


Xpvcra 



44 



DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



[§19. 



Dual 

N. A. V. xp v ™ ( m - & n -) xp v(T °- 
G. D. xp v(T0 ^ v ( m - ^ n xP V(Ta ^ v * 

Rem. 6. The contracted forms of adjectives in 60?, or), 6ov are de- 
clined in the same way ; when uncontracted, they are declined like 
Kakos. But when the feminine ending ea is preceded by p it is con- 
tracted into a, while 6rj, when p precedes, becomes 6a, and is not gen- 
erally contracted. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 

Rem. 7. The compounds of ttovs have ow in the ^neuter after the 
analogy of this form, but in the oblique cases they generally have 
the endings of ttovs (-odos, oSt, etc.), but sometimes ov, e'lc. 





II, 


WITH 


TWO ENDINGS. 




Singular. 
evvovs evvovv 




Plural, 
evvot evvoa 


Dual 

N. A. V, 


evvov 






evvcov 


€VV(0 


CVVCO 






evvois 




€VVOW 






evvovs evvoa 


G. D. 


GVVOVS €VVOVV 




evvoi evvoa 


evvoiv. 



Singular. 


Plural 


Dual 


N. tXecos 


tXecov 


tXeo) tXeco 


N. A. V, 


G. TXeco 




tXecov 


tAeo) 


D. tXecp 




tXecos 




A. tXecov 




tXecos tXeco 


G. D. 


V. tXecos 


rXe<0Z> 


tXeo) 4 A 60) 


tXeo)*/. 


Rem. 8. The 


v in the ace. 


sing, is sometimes drop 


iped here also. 



as in nouns. The compounds of ye'Aco? and Ktpas sometimes follow 
this form, and sometimes the third declension ; as, rpUepcos (G. o> or 
cdtos), (pcXoyeXcos (G. o> or <oros). UXecos has a fern, form also, irXea, 
G. irXeas, etc. 





Singular. 


Plural 




Dual. 


N. 


tt€ttcov 


TTtTTOV 


TTeTToves 


irkirova 


N. A. V. 


G. 


TTCTTOVOS 


7T€TT0V0S 


7T€TT0VC0V 


TreTTOVCOV 


Tveirove 


D. 


7T€TT0VL 


ttzttovi 


7T€7TOCri 


7T€7TOO-l 




A. 


Trenova 


TTtTTOV 


neTrovas 


Trerrova 


G. D. 


V. 


TTeTTOV 


TT€TTOV 


TT€TTOV€S 


neTrova 


7T€TT0V01V. 



Rem. 9. Comparatives in cov, ov are declined in this way, except 
that the voc. masc. is like the nom., and the ending ova in the ace. 
sing, and nom., ace, and voc. plural is often contracted into co, and the 
endings oves, ovas (nom., ace, and voc. pi.) into ovs ; as, peifav 
ova, (D, -oves, ovs. 



*19.] 



DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



45 



Singular. 



Plural. 



N. d\r]6f)s dXrjSes 


dXrjOecs -els 


dXrjdea -rj 


G. aXrjdeos -ovs \ dXrjSecov • 


(DV 


D. akrjOei -el 


a^J7#eo"£ 




A. aknOea -fj aKr]Bes 


d\r]6eas -eis* 


dXrjdea -rj 


V. aXrjOes 


as the nom. 




Dwa^. 




N. A. V. dXrjBee -i) 


G. D. akr]6eoLV -oiv 


. 


Rem. 10. But when a vowel precedes ia the contraction is into a 


instead of 77 ; as, vyua -a. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


Dual. 


N. Tp6(f>lS Tp6(j)L 


Tp6(pL€S Tp6(j)ia 


N. A. V. 


(jr. Tp6(j)lOS 


TpO<p'lG)V 


rp6<pt€ 


D. rpocjyu -t 


Tp6(pL(Tl 




A. Tp6qblV . TpOCpL 


rpo(j)ias -is rp6(f)ia 


G. D. 


V. rpocpi 


Tp6<fil€S TpOCpia 


TpO(filOlV. 



Rem. 11. But compound adjectives in is, which have a noun for 
their last component part, as well as other adjectives thus compounded, 
generally follow the declension of that noun, rejecting the finals' (when 
there is one, and shortening the final vowels in other cases) to form 
the neuter ; as, ev^apis, 1, G. ltos (like x^P LS ) 5 ^vcXttis, i,G. idos (like 
i\7rls). So, also, fjLeyaXrjTcop, op, G. opos (rjrop, opos). In imitation 
of these forms, simple adjectives in is, 1 sometimes have in poetry a 
declension in idos, idi, etc. ; and the compounds of ttoXis generally 
have this form, though the noun ttoXis does not. 

Rem. 12. Adjectives of one ending are declined like nouns of 
either the first or third declension, and are either masculine, feminine, 
or common (rarely neuter), and used mostly without a noun ; as, 
6 7revr]s, rjros (poor, poor man), 6, r) (fivyds, ados (fugitive, a fugitive, 
whether male or female). 



III. WITH IRREGULAR ENDINGS. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




N. TTpaos 


irpatia 


Trpdov 


TTpdoi 


TTpaeis TTpaeiai 


irpaea 


G. Trpdov 


TTpaeias 


Trpdov 


TTpaeoov 


TTpa€l(OV 


Trpaecov 


D. irpdco 


Trpaeia 


irpdco 


TTpdois 


TTpaeo'i TTpaeiais 


TTpaiai 


A. irpdov 


irpaeiav 


irpdov 


Trpdov s 


Tvpaeis TTpatias 


TTpaea 


V. irpde 


Trpafia 


Trpdov 


TTpdoi 

Dual. 


Trpaels irpafiai 


Trpaea 


N.A.V. 


Trpdco (m. 


& n.) TTpacla G. D. 


TTpdoiv (m. &. n.) 


TTpaeiaiv. 



46 


COMPARISON OF 


THE ADJECTIVE. 


[§20. 






Singular. 




N. TToXvS 


ttoXXt] 


TToXv 


pceyas peydXrj 


fxeya 


Gr. woWov 


noXXjjs 


TToXXoV 


peydXov peydXrjs 


peyaXov 


D. 7roXXc3 


TToXXjj 


TToXXcO 


/xeyaXa) fxcydXij 


fxeydXco 


A. TToXllV 


7ToXXr)V 


7ToXlf 


fxeyav p.€ydXr)v 


\xkya 


V. 7T0\v 


7roWr) 


7ToXv 


fJLeya p.€ydXrj 


Likya. 



Rem. 13. The plural and dual of these adjectives are regular, 
from the forms peydXos, 77, ov and noXXos, 77, oj>, from which, it will 
be seen, the entire fern, and the gen. and dat. sing, are taken. In the 
Epic dialect noXvs is declined regularly like other adjectives in vs, 
and in the Ionic, woXXos ; in Homer we find a mixture of both forms. 

Rem. 14. Besides the above, there are some other anomalous 
adjectives ; as, N. 6 <rcbs, r) o-cos o~d (rare), to ow, A. tov, ttjv a&v ; Pi. 
rovs acos, to. era. Regular form crcoos, a, ov (safe). Also, N. ivs tjvs, 
neuter iv rjij ev (good), G. crjos, A. ivv rjvv ; PI. G. idcov. 

Rem. 15. As to the accent, it is regulated by the same princi- 
ples as in nouns of the same declension ; but the voc. and neuter 
sing, of all adjectives of three or more syllables in cov, G. ovos, and 
some compounds in ??$•, G. eos, have the accent on the antepenult ; as, 
cvdaifxov (from evbalpcov) , e^diov ; KaKorfOes (from KaKorjdrjs). 

EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 

In making exercises these may be taken with the nouns in the preceding examples. 






rdXas, wretched. 
j3apvs, heavy. 
rkpr}v, tender. 
€vo-€I3t)Si -es, pious, 
agios, worthy, 
lo-rdsy stationing, 
rifxrjeis, honored. 



/3eX™W, -ov, better. 
cf)vyds, fugitive, 
pddws, easy, 
crdxppcov, "ov, wise, 
didovs, giving, 
deaevvs, showing. 



t€tvcJ)g>s, having struck. 
tvttcdv, striking, 
dpyvpeos, of silver. 
8lttX6os, double. 
'IBpis, *, knowing. 
riSeis, placing. 






§ 20. Comparison of Adjectives. 
The common forms for the comparative and superlative 



are. 



-T€pos, repa, repov (comparative), 
-raros, Tarrj, rarov (superlative), 

which are generally annexed to the positive without much 
change. 



§ 20,] COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. 47 

1. Most adjectives in os cast off y and receive these endings 
without any further change, when the syllable before os is 
long by nature or position (a mute and liquid generally mak- 
ing position here) ; as, tcr^vpoy, -porepos, -poraros, /za/epoy, -pore- 
poy, -poTaTos. But where the preceding syllable is short (except 
in K€v6s, <tt€v6s)i the final o becomes co on receiving these end- 
ings ; as, e^upoy, -pG)T€pOS, -patTCLTOS. 

Rem. 1. Adjectives in eos and ooy, if compared without contrac- 
tion, would, according to the preceding rule, simply cast off y and 
lengthen o into co, which is often done in those in ooy ; but those in 
eos reject also the e before co, and those in oos generally form the com- 
parative and superlative by rejecting os and adding ear epos, eararos, 
which are commonly contracted with the preceding o into ovcrrepos, 

OVCTTCLTOS ', aS, 7TOp(f)Vp€OS {-p€COT€pOS, -p€GdTCLTOs), -p&TEpOS, -pCOTCLTOS ', 

cbrXooy, a7rkoa>T€pos, cbrAocoraroy , also (-oeorepoy, -oeararos), a7rkov- 
orepoy, aTrXovararos. 

Rem. 2. The adjective yepaios regularly rejects os before annex- 
ing the comparative and superlative endings ; sometimes, also, naXaios 
and cr^oAatoy and (plXos ; as, yepaios, -alrepos, -alraros ; (plXos, (filXre- 
pos, -raroy. So, also, irepalrepos, from rrepa. 

Rem. 3. The adjectives fxeaos, o^ios, evdios {'ibios in Attic writ- 
ers), tcroy, Trapa7r\f)o-ios, generally rjcrvxos, and sometimes qblXos, sub- 
stitute at for o on adding the comparative and superlative endings ; as, 
p.eo~os, -air epos, -alraros. 

Rem. 4. Some adjectives in os change*)? into is or es and add the 
comparative and superlative endings to these ; as, XdAoy (XaXlarepos, 
-raros), nrco^os ; acfiBovos (es, but sometimes co), aicpdros, eppco/xeVoy, 
aafievos, €7ri7recW. 

2. Adjectives in rjs, -ey, G. eos (except yj/vSrjs), ay, -av (also 
lid/cap), and most in vy, -«a, -v, add repos and raros to the neuter; 
as, o*a(j)f)Si aa(j)ear€pos 9 'raros ; o£vy, -urepoy, -raros ; /xeXay, -aVre- 
pos, -raros* 

3. Adjectives in eis reject the i and then add repos and raroy ; 
as, ^apt'ety, ^aptecrrepoy, -raroy. 

4. Adjectives ending in £, coi>, oz/, and qy (gen. ov) add ecrre- 
poy, ecrraroy, sometimes Icrrepos, t'oraroy, to the Stem, which is 
found in the neuter, or by rejecting the genitive ending ; as, 
apirat; (G. ay-oy), apiray la-re poy, -tcrraroy. 

Rem. 5. The compounds of x<*P LS a dd co to the root before adding 
repos and raros ; as, eVtxapty (G. troy), €7rt^aptr-co-repoy, -coraroy. 



48 



COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



[§20. 



5. A few adjectives in vs (chiefly fjftvs and raxvs in the com- 
mon language) and pos (chiefly alxpds and €x@pos) drop these 
endings and add Icov (sometimes o-cov) and icrros for the com- 
parative and superlative ; as, rjdvs, rfiicav (neut. rjdiov), rjdicrros ; 
alcrxpds, alaxicov. alcrxLuros 5 raxvs, ra^icoz/ (AttlC BdcrcrcDv) , rdx^crros. 

Rem. 6. The comparative and superlative are but rarely formed 
by adding pdXXov {more), and fxaXiora or TrXticrra (most), to the posi- 
tive. 

6. The following adjectives have anomalous comparatives 
and superlatives, some of them from several different roots, 
and generally with slightly different shades of meaning : — 



dyaBos, good. 



KdKOS 



, bad, 



Kako?, beautiful, 
fiiKp6s. small, 

oXlyos.few, 
rroXvs, much, 
p,eyas, great, 
padios, easy, 
dXyeivos, painful, 

7TLCl)V, fat, 

rrencoif, ripe, 



fieXricov (ffeXrepos) 
dp.€LV(DV (dpeiW) 
Kp€LO~ crcov 
Xcocou (cpeprepos) 

KaKLCOV 

Xeipcov (xepeiccv) 
KaXXicov 

pLlKpOT€pOS (peiOdv) 

iXdcrcrcDV, iXdrrcov 
r\crwcA)V, rjrrcDV 

7r\€L(DV, TvXicOV 
[X€l£(DP 

pdcov 

dXyeworepos 

dXyicov 

7TLOT€pOS 
7T€7TaLT€pOS 



fieXncrros (fitXraros) 

a p lotos 

KpdrLcrros 

XcQCTTOS (cpepTdTOs) 

KaKicrros 

XeipioTos 

KaXXicrros 

fjuKporaros 

iXdxicrros 

6Xiy icrros 

TrXelcrros 

fxeyicrros 

pacrros 

dXyeivoraros 

aXytcrros 

moraros 

Trerrairaros. 



Rem. 7. Verbals in ros are sometimes compared ; as, alperos, 
-r&repos, -rcoraros. Also superlatives, and adjectives having a super- 
lative meaning, and by the comedians, the pronoun avros and even 
proper names ; as, 7rpo)ms, TTpconaros ; jSacriXevs, ftacriXevrepos (more 
a king) ; avros, avrorepos, avroraros (ipsissimus) . 

Rem. 8. There are some comparatives and superlatives and words 
having a superlative meaning, which have no positive, but are derived 
from nouns, pronouns, or adverbs ; as, fitjicicrros (from the noun jxrjKos), 



§21.] 



COMPARISON OF THE ADVERB. 



49 



irpovpyiaiTcpos (from rrpovpyov), irporepos and irpcoros (from irpo),vn€p- 
repos, vnepraros and vnaros (from vnep), ecrxaros (from e|), dcvrepos 
(from 5uo) . 

Rem. 9. The Epic dialect sometimes forms the superlative by re- 
jecting the nominative ending, os, tjp, e,tc, and adding simply aros ; 
as, peos, pZcltos ; pvxos, pvx^ros ; irv6pr]P, rrvparos ; {>7rep, vTrepraros or 
vnaros. 



l±aKap, happy. 
yXvKvs, sweet. 
dXrjOtjs, Zrwe. 
fxe\as, black, 
agios, worthy. 
Kovcfios, light. 
iriKpos, hitter. 
iiTLxcipLs, 'pleasing. 
7rop(j)vp€os, purple. 



EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 



yepaios, old. arrXoos, simple. 

(friXos, dear. o~<po8p6s, vehement, 

cv&aificov, fortunate, raxvs, swift. 

dcfrrjXig, elderly. t]8vs, sweet. 



xapUis, pleasant. 
rjvvXOSi quiet. 
'Laos, equal. 
aKparos, unmixed. 
XdXos, talkative. 



alo~xpds, shameful. 
ix$p6s, hostile. 
o-o><fipcov, prudent. 
7rTto^oy, poor. 
a<p6ovds, bounteous. 



§ 21. Comparison of Adverbs. 

1. The positive of most adverbs is derived from the corre- 
sponding adjective (or participle) by assuming the ending 
cos. Or as a practical rule, since the accent of the adjective 
in the genitive plural is the same as that of the adverb, adverbs 
are derived from adjectives by changing cop of the gen. plur. 
into as, without any change of accent ; as, o-ocpos (G. PI. crocpcop), 
crocficbs ; (piXos (G. PI. (fiiXcop), (fiiXcos ', reraypepcos (from the part. 

T€Tayp€POs). 

2. Most adverbs derived from adjectives, however, do not 
assume cos in the comparative and superlative from the com- 
parative and superlative endings of the adjective, but use the 
accusative neuter singular of these forms for the positive, and 
the accusative neuter plural for the superlative ; as, crafycos 
(from cracprjs), cra(f)eaT€pcp, o~a(fieo~TaTa ; cro(pcos (o~Q<pos), aQCJ)(OT€pop, 
aocjxoTaTa ; rjdecos (fjSvs), fjBiop, rjftio'Ta, 

Rem. 1. Adverbial comparatives in cos are not wanting (as, aafa- 
5 



50 NUMERALS. # [§ 22. 

<TT€p<os, fiei^ovcos, etc.), but there is no well-established case of a super- 
lative in <os, in classical Greek. 

3. Most primitive adverbs, especially those in w, have their 
comparative in repo> and their superlative in rdrco, rather than 
in the above adjective endings ; as, aVa>, dVarrepa), dvcordrcD. 

So, mostly, ay\i or dyxov. dyxorepco (Ep. dVcrorepco) or acr(roj> 
(Dor. acrviov), dyxprdrco or ay^tcrra ; 7repa, 7T€paiT€pcd ; tt]\ov, ttjXo- 
rzpcD, TT]\oTdroi> ; eicds, e<acrrepa>, €KaoTdra> ; fia*pdi/, fiaKporepav and 
fjLdKpoTcpov, fiaKpordrco and fiaKporarov ; iyyvs, iyyvrcpca (iyyvrepov, 
%yy iov), iyyvrdra) (iyyvrara, iyyicrra) ; 7rpo, 7rporepco ; cnro, dirorepco, 
dTTOTarco ; 7rpcot, 7rp(o'iaLT€pov (7Tpcpa.LT€pov, TTpcolrepov) , -rarci ; evtov, 
ivhorepco, ivbordrco ; rrpovpyov, 7rpovpyictLT€pov, 7rpovpyi,aiTaTa', vvKrcop, 

WKTldlTepOV, WKTLdlTClTCO. 

Rem. 2. The comparison of p,d\a, fidXkov, p.dXki(TTa, and T/a"cro^ 
(comparative), fjuora, is quite anomalous. 



SECTION V. 

NUMERALS. 

§ 22. Classification and Table of Numerals. 

1. The Greek numerals are divided into cardinals, ordi- 
nals, multiplicatives, proportionals, numeral substantives, and 
numeral adverbs, 

2. The ordinals are derived from the cardinals, as will be 
seen from the following table ; so, also, are the numeral ad- 
verbs, by dropping (after the first three) the final letter of the 
cardinal and adding the ending d<is ; as, anal; {once), Ms 
(twice). Tpis (three times), rcrpdias, 7T€vrdKis, etc. Also from 
indefinite numeral words, iroWaKis, w^eovaKis, etc. 

Rem. 1. Numeral substantives (which express abstract numbers) 
end in as, G. dbos, and are derived partly from the cardinals, and 
partly from the ordinals ; as, has or fiouds (unity) , bvds (duality) , rpids 
(triad, trinity), rerpds, TTCjinds (irepTrrds, ireprds), e^dV, ifi$op,ds, oydods. 
heds, deltas, hbeKas, dadeicds, etc., ei/cd?, rpiaKas, rccraapaKOvrds, etc., 
eKovrds, xiXiaf, ' /xvptdf, etc. A few, also, in vs ; as, rpirrvs (triad), 

T€TpCLKTVS, X^ 00 ™*' 

3. Multiplicatives (denoting how many fold, and ending in 
7r\6os -ovs), and proportionals (denoting hotv many times as 



§22.] 



NUMERALS. 



51 



many or great, and ending in 7r\d<no?, rarer n-Xao-iW), are de- 
rived either from cardinals, ordinals, numeral adverbs, or 
indefinite numeral words ; as, rerpairkovs [fourfold), bnfkdo-ios 
(twice as great), iroWaifkdo-tos {many times as great), etc. Of 
the same character also are diaaos and Tpiara-os. 

Rem. 2. There are also adverbial multiplicatives in 6d, x a i X*l 
(xf])<) X**s'i as > &X#a &'x a ^Wl &7rAJ7 ( iri a twofold manner, separately), 
TpLxrj, rerpaxa or rerpaxr), iravrayj), etc. 

4. There are no distributives in Greek, but it uses instead 
either the cardinals compounded with o-vv (as, avvhvo, by twos, 
crvvrpeis, etc.), or dud, els, Kara, with the cardinal in the ace. 
depending upon it ; as, Kara dvo, dua rreure, etc. 

Rem. 3. Numeral adjectives in aios denote the day on which 
something happened ; as, devrepaios, on the second day. 

5. The following table gives only the cardinals and ordinals, 
as being the most used and those from which the other classes 
of numerals are derived. The Greek letters before the first 
column (with a stroke above them up to 900, and below them 
afterwards) were used to denote the number expressed by 
the corresponding numerals. For this purpose the obsolete 
Ban (r), Koppa (£/), and Sanpi (^) were used with the 
other letters. 





TABLE OF 


NUMERALS. 




Cardinals. 


Ordinals. 


1 


a els (one) 


irpatros (first) 


2 


P dvo 


$€UT€pOS 


3 


y rpels 


TpLTOS 


4 


& reacrapes 


rerapros 


5 


€ 7T€VT€ 


7T€fM7rTOS 


6 


f 1 


€KTOS 


7 


f ewrd 


e(38op.os 


8 


/ » r 
T) OKTG) 


oydoos 


9 


euu'ea 


euuaros (euaros) 


10 


C hkKa 


$€KaTOS 


11 


id euhena 


eudeKarog 



>2 




NUMERALS 


12 


i/3'- 


h&heKa 


13 


l 7 


TpivKaLheKa 


14 


i* 


recrcrapeovcaiSeKa 


15 




7T€VT€Kaid€Ka 


16 


ir 


cKKaibcKa 


17 


<i 


iTTTCiKaldeKa 


18 


l V 


oKTccKaideKa 


19 


iff 


ivveaKaideKa 


20 


r 
K 


ei/coo - * 


21 


KCL 


cI'koci eiff 


30 


X 


-rpiaKovra 


40 


t 


TtacrapaKOVTa 


50 


V 


7T€vrr]K0VTa 


60 


g 


i^rjKOvra 


70 





iftdofirjKOVTa 


80 


77 


6ydor)Kovra 


90 


h' 


ivV€VT)KOVTa 


100 


P 


iwiTov 


200 


r 


diciKoaioi 


300 


T 


TpiaKoa-ioi 


400 


V 


T€TpaKO<riOl 


500 


*', 


TrevraKocrioL 


600 


X 


itjaKoaioi 


700 


+' 


eirTa.KO(Tioi 


800 


/ 
(0 


OKTCLKOCTiOi 


900 


V 


ivvcLKoaiot. 


1,000 


a 


Xi'Xiot 


2,000 


fi 


bio~x}\iOi 


3,000 


,y 


rpto-^/Xiot 


4,000 


fi 


T€TpaKLO-\LkLOL 


5,000 


JE 


TT€VTaKl(J^(lktOl 


6,000 


F 


€^a/cicr^iXiot 


7,000 


£ 


€7rra/cicr^iXiot 


8,000 


7) 


oy(Wi(r;(iXioi 


9,000 


fi 


ivVCLKKTXlklOl 


10,000 


t 


pvpiOL 


20,000 


fi 


bi(rp.vpioi 


50,000 


y 


TrevTdKMrpvpiOL 


100,000 


p 


SfKaKiarpvpioi 



[§22. 



ScoSe/caTo: 

rpL<TKCU$€KaTOS 

T€(j(TapaKai$€KaTQS 
TrevTCKaidzK aros 

€KKai$SKCLTO$ 

tTTTCLKaihkKaTOS 

OKTCdKaideKdTOS 

ivv€aKaibe kotos 
elKocrros 
cIkoo-tos npcoTos 

TpldKOCTTOS 

T€0~0~apa.KO(TT6s 

TreVTTjKOO-TOS 

££t)koo~t6s 

iftdoprjKoo-TOS 

oyftorjKOtJTOS 

iwtVTJKOO'TOS 

€KCLTOO~t6s 

blO.KO(TlOO~T6s 

TpiaKOO-LOOTOS 

TCTpaKOO-LOa-TOS 

TrevraKocnoo'Tos 

€^aKO(TLocrr6s 

iTTTaKoariooTos 

OKTUKOO-IOCTTOS 
ivVCLKOCTlOOTOS 

XikioaTos 
diaxiXiocTTos 

TpKTXlXlOCTTOS 

Terpa/acr^tXiooTOf 
TrevraKKTxiXioo-Tos 
ii-aKiarxikioo-Tos 

iTTTaKlO-^CklOO'TOS 

oySoKKr^tXiocrroy 
ivvaKKTX^oo-Tos 
fivpLoaros 
Siarpvpioo-Tos 

7T€VTaKL(TpiVpLOOT6? 

SeKaKio-pvpioo-TOS. 



§ 23.] NUMERALS. 53 

Rem. 4. In the compound numbers, both cardinal and ordinal, 
above twenty (and sometimes even in the tans), the smaller number 
is generally placed first and connected with the larger by kcli (occa- 
sionally by €7?l), but sometimes the smaller follows without a connec- 
tive ; as, 7revT€ ical Etroox, or eUocn ivevre, rarely ei/Kocri kcli rrevre. 

Rem. 5. In expressing eighteen, nineteen (eighteenth, nineteenth), 
twenty-eight, twenty-nine, etc., a subtractive form is sometimes used, 
consisting of the part, of dico (want) agreeing either with the smaller 
or the larger number ; as, evbs beovros nevrrjKovra (undequinqua'ginta, 
fifty, one wanting) ; evos decou 77€vtt]ko(tt6s avr)p (undequinquagesimus 
vir, the fiftieth man, wanting one). 

Rem. 6. In regard to fractions and mixed numbers, i is expressed 
in general by the adjective fjfu&vs, or by q/u prefixed to the term des- 
ignating any particular kind of weight, measure, or magnitude ; as, 
T]fjLtrciXavrov (half -talent) , etc. ; \, \, \, etc. by compounding the ordi- 
nals Tplros, etc. with the noun p.6piov (part) ; as, rpLrniiopiov %, re- 
raprnfJiopLov \, etc. In expressing mixed numbers, either the ordinal 
next greater than the whole number is placed before the above ex- 
pressions for fractions, or the cardinal before their plural forms : the 
former implying the antecedent wholes by expressing a subsequent 
part, and the latter expressing the wholes in parts : as, rpirov j^/xtra- 
\avrov (2i talents, lit. the third half talent, implying two whole ones 
besides), or, rpla rjiiiTakavra (1£ talents, three half-talents) , etc. 

§ 23. Declension of Numerals. 

1. The first four cardinal numbers are thus declined : — 

dvo (dvco) 
Svotv (Sucty, 6\>o>j>) 
dvolv (8vo~i, dvolo~L) 
dvo (§uco). 

reaaapes (rerrapes) recraapa 

T€0"(rdpG)i> 

rkauapai (poet, jkrpacri) 

recrcrapas Tecraapa. 

Rem. 1. The negative compounds of els, ovdeis and p.nbels, are 
declined like els (as, ovdeis, ovdefiia, ovdev, G. oidevos. ovdefiias, etc), 
and are sometimes used in the plural ; as, oideves, ovdevcov, ovdevas- 

Rem. 2. *A/x<£g>, like §vo, has aiMpoiv in the gen. and dat. of all 
genders, and has only these forms. But both this and dvo, Bvco are 

5* 



IN. 


€LS 


fj.La 


ev 


G. 


€VOS 


fJLtas 


Ivos 


D. 


evl 


fxia 


r t 

evi 


A. 


eva 


iilav 


rt 

ev. 


N. 


rpels 


rpla 




G. 


TplCOV 


rpicov 




D. 


Tpicrl 


TplO~l 




A. 


TpflS 


rpla 





54 



PRONOUNS. 



[§24. 



sometimes indeclinable, especially in Homer. In the Epic dialect 
dvo becomes doico, 80101, D. doiols, etc. 

2. Of the other cardinals, only the round numbers from 
two hundred (diaKoo-101) to ten thousand (pvpioi) are declined. 
These are declined like the plural (like the singular only 
when they belong to a collective noun in the singular) of 
adjectives with three endings in os, v (a), ov, while all ordi- 
nals are declined like these adjectives both in the singular and 
plural. 

Rem. 3. To express two or more thousands or tens of thousands, 
numeral adverbs are prefixed to -^lKloi and pvpioi ; as, rpLo~x&ioi 
(three thousands), nevrataarpvpioi (fifty thousands). 



SECTION VI. 

PRONOUNS. 

§ 24. Personal Pronouns. 

1. The simple substantive or personal pronouns iy6> (I), 
(tv (thou), 1 (he, she, it), avros (he, himself) : — 

Singular. 



N. iyt>, I 




CTV 


0) 




avros 




-0 


G. ip,ov, jiov, of me 




(TOV 


od 




avrov 


-r)s 


'OV 


D. e/xot, fiol, to me 




(TOL 


oi 




avTG* 

■ 


4 


-0) 

t 


A. e/xe, p.k, me 




(T€ 

Dual. 


* 

€ 




avrov 


-r)v 


-0 


N. A. z/a>, we loth, us loth 


cr(£a> 


(T(f)(t)€ 




avroo 


-a 


t 
-0) 


G.D. vcov, of (to) us 


loth 


a(f)cov 
Plural. 


(T(j)COLV 




avroiv 


~aiv 


•oiv 


N. rjpels, we 




vpeis 


o-(£eI.9, 


a(f)ea 


avroi 


-ai 


-a 


G. rjptov, of US 




vpcov 


(T(pCDV 




aVTCDV 


•cov 


'COV 


T). Tjp.lv, to us 




vp.1v 


(T(f)l<Tl, 




avrols 


m a7s 


-o7s 


A. r)pas t US 




vpas 


o~<pas, 


cr(f)ea 


aVTOLS 


-as 


-a. 



Rem. 1. Alto? with the article means the same, and is often con- 
tracted with the article, making ravrov (from rov avrov), ravrco , ravrrj , 
ravro or ravrov (v being often added to the neuter of the contracted form). 



§24.] 



PRONOUNS, 



55 



N. 
G. 



DIALECTIC FORMS OF iya, (TV, |. 
FIRST PERSON. SECOND PERSON. 

Singular, 
iyoiv (JEol., Ep.) ; eyavya, rv (Dor.), tvvtj (Ep.) 

iyavrj (Dor.), 
e/xeojf/xev, tteO(Ep. and Ion.) ; 

ifielo , ifte 6e v ( Ep . ) ; ifievs, 

ipovs (JEol. and Dor.). 



D 



rev (Dor.) ; tre'o, crcv (Ep. and 
Ion.); creio, reoto (Ep.) ; 
(TtBev (poet.); revs, reovs 
(iEol. and Dor.) ; tlos, tl- 

0)9, TIO), TLOVS (Dor.). 

rlv, Te'iv (Ep. and Dor.) ; rot 
(Ep. and Ion.). 



e/xoi (Bceot.) ; e/uV, efiivya 
(Dor.). 

Dual 
N. A. j/ou, v<oiv (Ep.). a-(pS'i, &(f)mp (Ep.). 

G. D. v&'iv (Ep.). <r(j)aiv (Ep.). 

Plural 
rjfxses (Ion.) ; afxes (Dor.) ; v/zees (Ion.) ; v/xe? (Dor.) ; 
types (JEol. J. 

rjfxecov (Ep. and Ion.) ; fjficiau 

(Ep.) ; a/x/xecoi/ (iEol.). 
aii/u (Ep. .^Eol.) ; a/ziieo~i 

(^Eol.). 
fjneas (Ep. and Ion.) ; a/x/xe 

(Ep. &iEol.);cx/x€(Dor.). 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 



iifjLfxes (JEoh). 
vfiecov (Ep. and Ion.) ; vfieiow 

(Ep.) ; vfxfiecov (JEol.). 
vfxfiLv (Ep. and iEol.). 

vfjiias (Ion.) ; i/'/z/ze (Ep. and 
JEol.) ; vps (Dor.). 



Singular. 
G. eb, eu (Ep. and Ion.) ; 
eto, eelo, €#ey (Ep.); 
iovs(JEo\. and Dor.). 

D. €01. 



THIRD PERSON. 

Dual 

N. A. 

a(j)(0€, acfxa 

(Ep.). 

G. D. 



Plural. 
G. o-<^€o>j/(Ep. and Ion.) ; 

cr(j)€ia>v (Ep.). 
D. atfd, o-(f)Lu (Ep. and 

Ion.); 5ox£i(jEo1.). 
A. o-$e(Ep.); o-<£eas (Ion.); 

^e (Dor.) ; aa-(j)e 

(JEol.); juV (Ion.). 



A. ie (Ep.); /*iV (Ion.); 

j/tV, <r<fie (Dor. and al- o-$a>iV(Ep.). 
so Attic poetry) . 

2. From the genitive of the above personal pronouns are 
derived the possessive pronouns. They are inflected like 
adjectives in 05, and are as follows : — 



56 PRONOUNS. [§ 24. 

ifxos (my, mine), rjpirepos (our), vcotrepos {of us two, only Epic), 
o~6s (Dor. and Ep. reos, thy, thine), vpirepos (your), o-qbcotrepos (of 
you two, only Epic), i6s (Dor. and Ep.), o? (Ms, her, its, Dor. and Ep., 
but the Attic generally uses iavrov instead of it), acpirepos (generally 
plur., their). 

Rem. 2. In the Doric and Epic dialect we find dpos or dfxos, our, 
vpLos, your, a(f>6s, his; also, acfierepos often in the sense of e/xoy, aos, 
rjpirepos and vpirepos. 

3. Reflexive Pronouns. — These are ip.avrov {of myself \ my 
oivn), o-tavTov (of thyself ', thy oicn), iavrov (of himself \ his oivn). 
They are composed of avros joined to the three accusatives 
e/ze, o-e, and e, the parts being always separated in Homer, and 
in the plural of the first and second person, and sometimes of 
the third, in the Attic dialect. They can have no nominative, 
of course, since they always express the object of one's own 
action, thought, or reference. 

Singular. Plural. 

G. ifjLavrov -rjs rjp,(ov avrcov 

D. ifiavTco -fj fjfjuv avrols (-ah) 

A. ipavTou -r\v fjfias avrovs ( m ds) 



e ~ 



(jr. (reavrov -rjs vp,cov avrcov 

D. creavrcp -fj vplv avrols (-als) 

A. veavrop -r\v vp.ds avrovs ( m ds) 

Gr. iavrov -rjs iavriov, or gtQj&v avrcov 

D. iavrco -rj iavrols -als, or o~<piorLV avrols (-als) 

A. iavrov -r)v -6 iavrovs -as -a, or o~(pas avrovs ('<*?), o-(f>ea avrd. 

Rem. 3. aeavrov and iavrov are often contracted in the different 
cases by dropping the e ; as, oravrov, cravrco, aavrrjv ; avrco, avrfj, 
avrols, avrals, etc. 

4. The reciprocal pronoun is d\\r)\G>v (of one another) , an 
abridged compound from aXXoi aXXcov. As it always refers to 
more than one, and implies the action of one on another, it 
can, of course, have no singular and no nominative. 



§25.] 



PRONOUNS. 



57 



Plural 
G. dXXrjXwv dXXrjXcov dXXr)X(ov 
D. dXXrjXois dXXr)Xais dXXrjXois 



Dual. 
dXXrjXoiv dXXrjXaiv dXXrjXoiv 
dXXrjXoiv dXXrjXaiv dXXrjXoiv 



A. dXXrjXovs dXXtjXas aXXrjXa dXXrjXo) aXXrjXa aXXrjXco. 



§ 25. Demonstrative and Relative Pronouns. 

1. The demonstrative pronouns are ovtos, ode (this, the for- 
mer generally referring to what precedes, the latter to what 
follows), and ixelvos (that), ode is simply the article with the 
inseparable particle -de, and is declined like the article, which 
see, § 10, 4. The others are thus declined : — 

Singular. 



N. 


OVTOS 


aVTT) 


TOVTO 


eKelvos 


eKeivrj 


eKelvo 


G. 


TOVTOV 


TaVTTJS 


TOVTOV 


eKeivov 


eKelvrjs 


eKeivov 


D. 


TOVTO) 


TaVTTJ 


TOVTCO 
t 


eKeiv<a 


eKelvrj 


eKelvco 


A. 


TOVTOV 


TailTTJV 


TOVTO 

Plural. 


eKeivov 


eKelvrjv 


eKelvo 


N. 


OVTOl 


avTai 


Tavra 


eKelvoi 


eKelvai 


eKeiva 


G. 


TOVTCOV 


TOVTO)V 


TOVTCOV 


€K€IVG)V 


€K€lV(OV 


eKelvcov 


D. 


TOVTOIS 


TavTais 


TOVTOIS 


eKelvois 


eKeivais 


eKeivois 


A. 


TOVTOVS 


Tavras 


TavTa 

Dual. 


CKclvOVS 


eKeivas 


eKeiva 


N.A 


, TOVTO) 


Tavra 


TOVTO) 


eKeivo) 


eKeiva 


eKeivto 


G.D. 


TOVTOIV 


TavTaiv 


TOVTOIV 


eKeivoiv 


eKeivaiv 


eKeivoiv 



Rem. 1. As to the dialectic peculiarities, the article, which prop- 
erly belongs here, has to'i and rat (ovtos, also, tovtoi, Tavrai) in the 
nom. plur. in the Doric dialect, besides other peculiarities in the 
oblique cases, such as nouns of the first and second declensions have. 
'EKelvos becomes Kelvos in the Epic dialect and in Attic poetry, ktjvos 
.ZEol., ttjvos Dor. In ovtos and avros, the Ionic inserts e before 
the long endings ; as, tovtcco, avTeij, etc. .ZEolic Tcovdecov for T&vde. 

Rem. 2. Like ovtos are declined toctovtos (so great), toiovtos 
(such), and ttjXikovtos (so old), except that ovtos, in these words, 
does not take a r (and often ends in v in the neuter singular) at the 
beginning in the oblique cases (as, toctovtos, Tooravrr], toctovto or 
ToaovTov, G. toctovtov, etc.). Like cKeivos is declined aXXos, aXXrj, 
aXXo (other, another). 



58 



PRONOUNS. 



[§26. 



2. The relative pronoun os (who, which, that) is declined as 
follows : — 

Singular. Plural. Dual 



os 



N. 



G. oS 
D. o5 



A. 



ov 



T)S 
T 

V 

rt 
7]V 



ft 
OL 


ft 

at 


a 


rt tt tt 
oj a co 


wv 


COV 


hv 


T ? ? 

olv aw OLV 


T 

OLS 


als 


ols 


like the gen. 


ft 

ovs 


as 


a 


like the nom. 



Rem. 3. The article is mostly used for the relative in the Doric 
and ancient forms of the language and in the Tragedians ; also, to a 
considerable extent, in the Epic language. In Homer and the Doric, 
o stands for os ; olo in the Epic and Ionic, and sometimes oov Epic 
and €Tjs Homeric, for ov, fjs* 

§ 26. Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns, 

1. The indefinite and interrogative pronouns have the same 
form (tis, tls, any certain, some one ; ivho 7 ichich 1 what ?), 
but are distinguished from each other by their accent and 
position relative to the word to which they belong ; the former 
having its accent throughout (when it does not lose it by 
being an enclitic) on the last syllable (and always written as 
grave when not a circumflex) and standing after its word, 
the latter retaining the accent (always written acute, except 
on the contracted forms) on the first syllable throughout, and 
standing before its word. 





INDEFINITE. 




INTERROGATIVE 




N. 




t\s 


Singular. 

Tt 


t 
TLS 


tL 


G. 




TLVOS, TOV 




TLVOS, TOV 




D. 




TLV\, T(U 




TLVL, TCQ 




A. 




TLVCl 


\ 
Tl 

Plural. 


TLVa 


tL 


N. 




rives 


TLva, arra 


TLV€S 


rlva 


G. 




TLVCOV 




TLVCOV 




D. 




Ticri 




TLCTl 




A. 




TLVCLS 


tlvcl, arra 
Dual 


TLvas 


TLVa 


N.A 


TLV€ 




TLV€ 




G. 


D. 


TLVOLV 




TLVOLV. 





<j> 27.] PRONOUNS. 59 

Rem. 1. The negative compounds of r\s, ovtis, wris, etc. are de- 
clined like the simple rls ; as, ovtlvosj ovtivi, etc. 

2. When the interrogative rls and other interrogative words 

(whether pronouns or adverbs) stand in dependent sentences, 

the relative 6s, 6 is prefixed to them, making them indirect 

interrogatives ; as, ooris, oVoo-o?, Snolosy oirorepos, oirov, onus, 

etc. In oris (who, whoever), but not in the others, the relative 

is declined throughout with the interrogative. Thus : — 

Singular. Plural. 



N. 


OCTTLS tJTLS OTL 


o1tiv€s aiTives anva, arra 


G. 


OVTLVOS, OTOV fjOTlVOS 


Z)VTlVCOV, OTCQV 


D. 


CpTLVL, OTto fjTIVl 


oloTicri, 6tois( rare) afoTto-t 


A. 


OVTLVa T]VTlVa OTL 


ova-TLvas dcTTivas aTiva,aTTa 



Rem. 2. The forms rty, tls have in the dialects, gen. rio, rev 
(Ep., Ion., and Dor.), dat. Tea, rS (Ep., Ion.) ; and tls, gen. plur. 
rtcov (Ep., Ion.), dat. reoicri (Ep., Ion.), neut. plur. aWa. In oorns the 
relative (which then becomes o) is, frequently not declined in the Epic 
and Ionic, and r is doubled in the neuter, as, oris, ottl, and in the ob- 
lique cases has the like dialectic endings to those of the simple tls, tls. 

3. The indefinite pronoun Selva (Mr. such-a-one) has but 
one form for all gende rs, and is thus declined : — 

Singular. Plural. 

N. belva delves 

G. belvos Seivcov 

D. 8ehi 

A. delva 8e?vas. 

Sometimes it is wholly indeclinable ; as, rov, t<5, tov helva. 

§ 27. Correlative Pronouns and Adverts. 

Correlative pronouns and adverbs are those which have a 
mutual relation to each other in both sense and form. The 
correlative ideas expressed by correlative pronouns relate to 
quantity or quality ; those expressed by adverbs, to place, time, 
and manner. The relation in each case is that between an 
interrogative, an indefinite, and a demonstrative and relative. 



60 PRONOUNS. [§ 27. 

i. e. between a question answered indefinitely or by a demon- 
strative followed by a relative. The regular correlatives in 
Greek, it will be seen from the following, commence with n in 
the interrogatives, and have the same form in the interroga- 
tives and indefinites (being distinguished only by the accent), 
while the demonstratives commence with r, and the relatives 
(and dependent interrogatives) with 6 (except tjXIkos), 

I. PRONOMINAL CORRELATIVES. 

Uocos, iroa-os, rocros (roGocrbe, toq-ovtos) , Soros or onoaos, = how 
great (many) ? of a certain size (or quantity), so great, as ; — 
irolos, ttoios, toIos (roiocrBe, tolovtos), olos or onolos, — of what 
kind 7 of a certain kind, such, as ; — tttjXlkos, .... rrf\iKos 

(TTJXlKOO-de, T7]\lKOVTOs), fjXlKOS OY OTTrjXlKOS = llOW old {large) J 

. ... so old, as. There are also the incomplete and rarely 
used correlative pronouns, ttootos, of what number 7 and 67ro- 
otos, in whatever number, -ttoo-tcuos, in how many days ? and 
oTTooTalos, in whatever number of days, tvwos (twvovtos), so 
little, (each without the other correlative parts,) and Trobanos, 

Tjfxebairos (vfjiedcmos, dXkobaTros, TravToftcnros), OTrohairos, = of what 

country ? of our (your, another, every) country, of whatever 
country. 

II. ADVERBIAL CORRELATIVES. 

IIov (tt66c poet.), 7tou (rodi poet.), ov (u6i poet.) or ottov 
(onodi poet.), == where ? somewhere, here, where; — irodev, nodev, 
Todev, oBev or oiroQev, = whence ? from some place, thence, 
whence ; — not (noae poet.), arm, . . . . (ol poet.) or 07701 (onoo-e 
poet.), = whither ? to some place .... whither ; — 770'7-e, irori, 
t6t€, ore or oVoYe (dialectic forms, nrjixos .... ttjiaos, etc.) == 
when 1 at some time, then, when; — TrrjvUa .... (r^vina poet.) 
T7)PLKade or TTjVLKavra, TjvUa OY on^viKa, = at what time of day 1 
. ... at this (that) time of day, at which time of day ; — 77£s, 
7ra>s, (tqos, &s poet.), a>de OY ovtcos (eKeLvms), cos or 6ncos, = how ? 
somehow, thus (so), as ; — jrfj, 7177, (rfj poet.) rjjSe or ravrrj, 77 



§ ^8] PRONOUNS. 61 

or oiTjjy = in what way (direction) ? in some way, in this way, 

in which way ; — novaKis, .... roadicis, Sadicis or onoo-aKLs =3 

how often ? .... so often, as often, as. Also the somewhat 

correlative words reus, so long, eW, till ; rofypa, so long as, 

6(f) pa, as long as. 

Rem. In common prose, the ideas here, there are expressed by 
evBa, evBdhe, ivravOa (Ion. ivdavra) , and hence, by evBev, ivOevbe, evrev- 
6ev (Ion. ivBevrev). There are also the common demonstrative ad- 
verbs vvv (now) and devpo (hither), and the relative adverbs iwei and 
€7T€idr] (when). 

§ 28. Strengthening of Pronouns. 

1. The enclitic particle ye (yd Dor. and iEol.), which is 
placed after words of all sorts to give prominence or emphasis 
to their meaning, is often actually joined to eya> and av for 
this purpose, in which case the accent is thrown back to the 
first syllable, in eya>, except in the gen. ipov ; as, eycoye (I for 
one, I for my part), ep,oiye, cruye, etc. The iEolic and Doric 
add vr) also, in the same way ; as, eyavrj. 

2. The suffix -de is added to certain demonstrative words to 
increase their demonstrative force ; as, ode, roioVSe, hbe, etc. 
With like effect, also, the accented iota (1 long) is added to 
demonstrative pronouns and adverbs, and absorbs a preceding 
short vowel ; as, ovroai (this here), avrrji, tovtL (o being ab- 
sorbed), 6dl, €K€LVO(TL ', OVTCOCTL, WVl, tvdabL AlsO TOVTOyl (from 

tovto ye l), ravray'i, etc. 

3. The enclitic Tre'p is attached to all relatives to give pre- 
cision and exactness to the relative meaning (just as re is in 
the Epic) ; as, 6Wep (precisely who), oo-oo-irep, oBevnep, etc. 

4. The particles dr), o^ore, ovv, drjworovv, are often added to 
relative pronouns (but not to the simple relative cfc), and some 
relative adverbs, in order to make their meaning more compre- 
hensive, like our suffix ever in whoever, whatever, etc. ; as, 
no-TL(rbr]TTOTe (whoever possibly, whoever), 6<ttktovv (whoever ihen y 
whoever), oo-oo-drj-n-oTe (hoioever great) ; oncoo-ovv, oTvovdrj, etc. 

6 



62 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. [§ 29< 

CHAPTER III. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 

§ 29. Introduction. 

1. Besides the active and passive, the Greek often uses the 
tenses of the passive, except the aorist and future, in a reflex- 
ive or intransitive sense ; in which sense, also, it has separate 
forms for the aor. and fut., thus forming a third voice, called the 
middle. The middle voice, then, expresses the action of an 
agent upon himself, a part of himself or in some way in ref- 
erence to himself ; as, rv7rro/xat, I strike myself ; irv^aro ttjv 
K€<paKr)v, he struck his head ; araB^ao-Oai, to weigh with one's 
self consider. 

Rem. 1. Verbs having only the middle voice are called deponent 
verbs ; but if they have their aorist tense in the passive form (as many 
do) , they are called deponent passives. 

2. In addition to the tenses of our language, the Greek has 
what is called an aorist tense in each of the three voices, cor- 
responding to the Latin narrative perfect, and nearly to our 
narrative imperfect, as distinguished from the progressive 
form with am, was, etc., which form corresponds to the 
Greek imperfect. 

3. The Greek, also, has two forms for the aorist and future 
in both the active, passive, and middle, and two perfects and 
pluperfects in the active, besides the future perfect, which is 
both middle and passive. 

4. These double tenses are distinguished as primary and 
secondary tenses, some verbs forming one and some the 
other, but not commonly both, even in a single tense. Pure 
verbs (i. e. those having a vowel before the ending <w), with 
few exceptions, form only the primary tenses ; while mute 
and liquid verbs may form both, except the second future 
active and middle, which is formed only by liquid verbs. 



§ 29.J CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 63 

The future perfect is almost wholly confined to pure and 
mute verbs, and occurs but rarely even in these. 

5. The present, perfect, and future are called principal 
tenses ; the imperfect, pluperfect, and aorist, historical tenses. 

6. The modes in Greek are the indicative, the subjunctive, 
the optative, the imperative, and the infinitive. The subjunc- 
tive is much more largely used than in English, being often 
used where we use the indicative, or the potential of a prin- 
cipal tense, while the optative corresponds almost wholly to 
the historical tenses of the English potential. Hence the 
optative may be considered as the subjunctive of the historical 
tenses. 

7. Besides the modes, the Greek verb also has participles 
and the gerundive or verbal adjective in tos and rios. 

8. Only the principal tenses have the infinitive, imperative, 
and participle, and of these the future never has the impera- 
tive, and the perfect but rarely, since a command is always 
present, either as something independent or primary in its 
character (imper. aor.), or as subordinate (imper. pres.). 
Also, the future has no subjunctive, as the subjunctive is itself 
future in meaning; and the aorist has both the subjunctive 
and optative, because it is used both as a principal and an his- 
torical tense. 

9. The verb, like the noun, has three numbers, the singu- 
lar, the dual, and the plural ; but there is no separate form 
for the first person of the dual in the active voice and the first 
and second aorist passive (which have endings of the same 
kind as the active), its place being supplied by the first per- 
son plural. By some grammarians the first person dual is 
rejected throughout the passive, as well as in the active. 

10. Besides verbs ending in © in the indicative present, 
there are a few which end in pi, and form their present, im- 
perfect, and second aorist active and middle with different 
endings from other verbs. Verbs of the first form are called 
verbs in a> ; those of the second, verbs in pi. 



64 VERBS IN 0). [§ 30. 

- SECTION I. 

VERBS IN 0). 

§ 30. Classification of Verbs in g>. 

1. Verbs in a> are classified according to the last letter of 
the root, which may generally be found by dropping o> of the 
pres. indie. This letter is called the characteristic, as it de- 
termines the character or class of the verb. 

2. When the characteristic is a vowel, the verb is called a 
pure verb, when it is a pi-, kappa-, or tau-mute, it is called 
a mute verb, and when one of the liquids X, /*, v, p, a liquid 
verb. 

3. When the characteristic vowel is a, e, or o, this is gener- 
ally contracted with the inflectional endings in the pres. and 
imperf , and the verb is called a contract pure verb, or simply 
a contract verb ; as, ^tXew, <£iXa>. 

4. The root obtained by dropping a> of the pres. is not 
always the true root of the verb, but is often strengthened in 
mute and liquid verbs by the introduction of vowels or conso- 
nants which do not properly belong to the real root of the 
word. When the root of the pres. thus differs from the true 
root, it is called the strengthened or impure stem, and the true 
root, after rejecting the vowels or consonants by which it is 
strengthened, the pure root or stem. The characteristic, also, 
is called pure or impure, according as it is the final letter of 
the true root, or that modified by the strengthening consonant ; 
as, tv7tt-(o, — impure stem tvttt, pure tvtt ; impure character- 
teristic tit, pure n. 

Rem. 1. The strengthened stem of mute and liquid verbs remains 
only in the pres. and imperf., the pure stem being aVways found in 
the second aor. or some other secondary tense (when used), or in de- 
rivative words. 

5. The strengthened stem of verbs of the pi-mute class 
ends in tvt, the pure stem ending in it (except in /3Xa7rro> and 



§ 31.] VERBS IN a). 65 

Kpu7rro), which end in /3 — ifSkdfinv — ; and (3a7TTco, Odirrca, pd7rra>, 
crfcd7rra), pL7TT(D f and SpviTTG), which end in 0) ; as, Konrco, aor. 

€k6tT7)V. 

6. The strengthened stem of verbs of the kappa-mute class 
generally ends in o-a or tt (rarely in £), the pure stem ending 
in y (except in <£/nWa>, which ends in k) ; as, Trpdo-aoo, sec. 
perf. Trenpaya. 

7. The strengthened stem of verbs of the tau-mute class 
generally ends in { (rarely in o-cr, tt), the pure stem ending 
in d ; as, ko/zi£g), derivative Kopidf}. 

Rem. 2. The following verbs ending in crcrco (ttco) have 8 (instead 
of y) for their pure characteristic, viz. Trdaaco, 7rXdo-cra), /Spdcro-o), epea- 
cra), tttiWco, /3Xittcd, and perhaps a few others. On the contrary, of 
those ending in fo>, those denoting a sound or cry (as, o-revdfa), 2o 
groan), together with ordfo), or/fa), <TTepi£<o, /zaoTifa*? acj)v((o, and 
dAcm-afca, have y for their pure characteristic (instead of d) ; while 
KXdfca, 7rXd£a>, o"a\7ri£a> have yy. The verbs naifa, dpird^co, /Saord^co, 
and yuordfa) vary between d and y. 

Rem. 3. The most common strengthening of the stem-vowel in 
mute verbs is by changing e into ex, and v into ev in the pres. and im- 
perf. ; as, XetVa) (root Xi7r-), (f)evy<D (root (pvy-). 

8. The stem of many liquid verbs, also, is strengthened in 
the pres. and imperf., either by doubling X, by inserting v after 
the characteristic, by introducing i before v or p, in the endings 
awa, eivco, aipco, and etpw, or by simply lengthening in quantity i 
and v in the endings luco, vvco, vpa ; as, crreXXa (pure stem o-reX), 
T€fj,vco (re/Li), (patpco (<fidi>), ktcivco (kt€j/), atpa) (dp), (nreipcD (o"7rep), 
AcpiVco (/cpiv), dp.vpco (apvv), crvpa) (o*vp). 

§ 31. Reduplication and Augment. 

1. The additions made to the beginning of the stem of 
verbs in their conjugation are called reduplication and aug- 
ment. 

2. Reduplication takes place in the perf. and pluperf. 
(which latter tense generally takes, also, the temporal aug- 
ment e before the reduplication) of all voices, and in the future 
perf. mid. or pass., in all verbs commencing with a single con- 

6* 



66 VERBS IN a). [§ 31. 

sonant (i. e. not two consonants nor a double consonant) or a 
mute and liquid, except p, and in most cases yv, yX, and /3X. 
It consists in repeating the initial consonant, with e (Ep. et in 
some verbs) after it, which are retained in all the modes and 
the participle ; as, Xua>, perf. Xe'-Xv/ca, subj. Xe-Xu«a>, infln. Xe- 
Xu/ceVat, part. Xe-XuKa>s, plup. i~Xc-XvK€iv. 

Rem. 1. But XafjLJ3dvco, Xayxdvco, cruXXeya) (and some other com- 
pounds of Xeyco), (p€co), and peipofjuu, generally take et instead of the 
reduplication ; as, Xapftdva, perf. et'Xrj^a, plup. clXrjfaiv. But ktclo- 
fjicu takes the reduplication as though it commenced with a mute and 
liquid ; as, perf. /ce'-KrrjjLiat. 

3. Many verbs beginning with e, o, or a short a before a 
consonant, instead of the regular reduplication in the perf. 
and pluperf., augment the vowel, as in the temporal aug- 
ment, and at the same time repeat before it the unaugmented 
vowel with the following consonant. This is called the Attic 
reduplication, but is in general use. It rarely admits any 
additional augment in the plup. except in tjktjkociv ; as, dkeco, 
perf. d\-T]\€Ka, plup. aX-r/XeWi/ ; e/zeo), ifx-rjfieKa. But when the 
second syllable of the stem is a diphthong, it is shortened 
(except in epelda) in the reduplicated tenses, viz. et into t (into 
e in liquid verbs), and ov into o ; as, dXet^co, dX-r)Xi<fia; aicov^ 
aK-r)Koa, etc. 

Rem. 2. The verbs that take this reduplication (which they gen- 
erally retain in the pass., except d/coua>, which becomes rjicovo-fxai 
in the perf. pass.) are (except in the dialects) chiefly the following: 
dyelpa), aKova), dXet'c^G), dXe'a), dpoco, iyeipay, ecr6i<D, iXavvco, ^Xe'y^o), 
ep^o/xat (from the Stem eXevd-), e/tect>, (pepa (eVe/c-), epei'Sa), opva-o-co, 
oXXvfiL and opwjit. 

Rem. 3. The sec. aor. act. of ayco and cj)epa> (eVe/c-) have a sim- 
ilar reduplication (also various other sec. aor., both act. and mid., in 
the Epic dialect), except that the augment is placed on the repeated 
vowel, and hence remains only in the indie. ; as, rjyayov, rjveyKov (but 
dydyo), subj.). 

4. The augment belongs only to the indicative of the his- 
torical tenses ; and in verbs beginning with a consonant con- 
sists of e (called the syllabic augment) placed before the stem 



§ 31.] VERBS IN (o. 67 

of the verb in the imperf. and aor., and before the reduplica- 
tion in the pluperf. ; as, e-Xvov, «-Xi/o-a, e-Xe-XvKe«/. 

Rem. 4. But when the verb begins with p, a double consonant, 
or two consonants which are not a mute followed by a liquid, and 
even with /3X and yX in some cases, and yv always, the perf., pi up., 
and future perf have only the syllabic augment (except that p is redu- 
plicated in some poetic perfects), like the imperf. and aor., but, unlike 
those tenses, retain it through all the modes and in the participle, as 
they do the reduplication, when they have it. In those beginning 
with p, the p is doubled after the augment (except in a few poetic 
forms, and where yet X, cr, and p are sometimes doubled) ; as, pinm, 
imp. (-'ppiTTTov, perf. eppt^a ; f^reo), €^tjtt]K€lv ; e(f)6opa (pres. (fi&elpco), 
iyvcopiarpai (yvcoplfa), eykvpat, (y\v(p(o), eftXcKTTrjKa (j3\aaTavco) . 

5. The only augment which verbs beginning with a vowel 
or diphthong receive in any tense, consists in lengthening, 
in certain cases, the initial vowel, which is called the temporal 
augment. But here, also, the perf., pluperf., and fut. perf. 
retain the augment throughout, while the imperf. and aor. 
retain it only in the indicative. 

6. The temporal augment changes a, a, ai into 77, n ; o, 01 
into ©, a) ; € into 77 ; and simply lengthens in quantity t and 

v short ; as, imp. rjyov (pres. ayo>), rjvtjov (at/£a>), fjTOvv (atreco), 
perf. rjXiriKa \i\.Tri£<jn) , aor. oo/xiXr/cra (o/xtXeo)), aKrjica (otKea>). 

Rem. 5. But some verbs in a, av, and ot followed by a vowel (but 
not o'lopai), and a few in 01 not followed by a vowel, are not aug- 
mented by any change of vowels, though a is long in quantity in the 
augmented tenses. Such verbs are dtco (imp. dtov), avalvco, olaicifa, 
olicovpeco, etc. 

Rem. 6. In the following verbs in e, the c is changed into et by 
the augment, instead of into 77, viz. iaco (allow), iOifa (accustom), 
ikl(r(T(o (roll), eXfcco (cXk-, draw), ipydfypcu (work), €p7rco epirvfa 
(creep), iaricuo (entertain), e^co (have), enopai (follow), and alpeco 
(ip-, take) ; as, eiWa, etcoBa, elxop, etc. Also elnov (stem in-). 

Rem. 7. The o in ov, and generally the e in ev and a at the begin- 
ning of verbs, are not changed by augment. But cv occasionally be- 
comes nv, and ei becomes 77 in etKa£a>. 

7. Verbs beginning with eo augment the second vowel (o) ; 

as, imp. iaprafyv (eoprdfw). 

Rem. 8. A few verbs commencing with co, ov, and some even with 
a short vowel, take the syllabic augment (e) before their vowel, viz. 



68 VERBS IN 0). [§ 32. 

o)6ea) (imp. idodovv, rare ooOovv, aor. eWa) , au>eo/iac, ovptco ; aywfii 
and aXio-KOfjLai in the aor. and perf., and the perfects eWa, eo\na, 
eopya. Also some others in the Epic dialect. 

Rem. 9. The verbs opaco, dvoiyco, and dXiWo/uu, take both the 
syllabic and temporal augment; as, imp. dvecoyov, perf. iaypaxa, etc. 

Rem. 10. The verbs j3ouXo/xai, bvvafxai, and /xeXXa> also often take 
77, especially in the later writers, instead of €, as though their stem 
commenced with a vowel ; as, TjfiovXofAnv, r)dwr)6r)v, fjp.€Xkov, etc. 

Rem. 11. In common prose only the augment of ixpyv (except the 
augment c of the pluperf.) can be omitted, which is more commonly 
Xprjv, but in most kinds of poetry (rarely in the Attic) both the tem- 
poral and syllabic augment was often omitted for the sake of the 
metre, and for other reasons. In Ionic prose, also, the temporal aug- 
ment is often omitted in all of the tenses. 

Rem. 12. Sometimes the present prefixes e to the root of a verb, 
which has the appearance of the syllabic augment ; as, i-deXco (6e\co). 
Also, the present of verbs in /xi, and some other verbs, whose root 
begins with a single consonant or a mute followed by a liquid, are 
reduplicated in the present, by prefixing the first consonant followed by 
1 to the stem ; as, ck'-Sco/xi (stem do-), ri-rpdco, etc. 

§ 32. Reduplication and Augment in Compound Verbs. 

1. Most verbs compounded with a preposition take the aug- 
ment and reduplication between the preposition and the verb ; 
but where the compound verb has no simple form in use, or 
expresses not merely a modification of the idea of the simple 
verb, but a new idea, like an original verb, the augment and 
reduplication are often placed before the preposition, as in a 
simple verb ; as, a7r-e/3aXXoi/ (d7ro-/3aXXa>, to throw fr6?n), dwo- 
peftXriKa, etc. ; but dfjLcpLepvvfjiL (to clothe, having no compound 
idea in it), aor. ^/i^iWa, etc. 

Rem. 1. In forming these compounds, prepositions ending in a 
vowel lose it, except nepi and 7rpo, and the o of the latter of these is 
generally contracted, by crasis, with the augment e into ov (as izpov- 
fiaivov, but also TTpoeaxov, and the like). The 1/, also, in ev and avv, 
which had been dropped or assimilated before a consonant in the pres- 
ent, appears again before the augment; as, o-vv-eXeyov (avWeyco), etc. 

Rem. 2. Some verbs, on account of their partaking, perhaps, at 
the same time, of the nature of simples and compounds, take the aug- 
ment and reduplication both before and after the preposition, viz. a/x7re- 






§ 33.] VERBS IN 6). 69 

XOfiai, dyexofJLCLi, dfic^iyuoeCD, dvopdoco, eW^Xeo), rrapoiveco ; also foairdo), 
diaKovea, dfjL(f)i(r(3r)Te<o. Some verbs, also, vary as to the place of the 
augment, and some as to its being double or single. 

2. In all other compound verbs, except those beginning 
with 6W- before a short vowel (in which case this short vowel 
receives the augment), the augment and reduplication come at 
the beginning of the compound word ; as, oikoSo^o, cpKodofiovit ; 
dvarrvxeco, i-bvcrTvxpvv ; — but oWapeo-rea), dvcrrjpecrT-qo-a, etc. 

Rem. 3. Occasionally, also, in compounds with ev, a short vowel 
following this particle is lengthened by the augment ; as, €vepy€Tecoj 
evrjpyerovv or evepyerovv. 

§ 33. Tense- Characteristic, Mode- Vowel, and Personal 
• Endings. 

1. The tense-characteristic is the consonant which immedi- 
ately follows the stem, in certain tenses, before the mode- 
vowel and personal endings ; as, ifiovXev-cr-dfjLTjv. 

Rem. 1. The pres. and imperf. of all voices, and the perf. and 
pluperf. pass., and all the secondary tenses, except the second future 
passive, have no tense-characteristic. 

2. The tense-characteristic of the first fut. and aor. act. and 
middle, and the fut. perf., is o- ; that of the first aor. pass., 6 ; 
that of the first fut. pass., the syllable Grjcr, and of the second, 
rja- ; and that of the perf. and pluperf. act. of verbs of the pi- 
and kappa-mute class, a mere aspiration of the final mute, but 
in all other verbs k ; as, Xv-o--a>, eXu-o--d/i7;z/, XeXu-cr-o/zat ; i\v-6- 
f)v ; \v-6r)(T'OfjLai t Tptfi-rjo-ofjLCU ; T€Tpi(f)a (i. e. Ter/9tj3-d), XeXv-K-a, 

7r€7T€l'K-a. 

Rem. 2. It will be understood, of course, that in verbs ending in 
a tau-mute, this mute is dropped before the characteristics k and cr, and 
changed into cr before 6, and that the pi- and kappa-mutes suffer the 
usual euphonic changes before cr and the aspiration (see § 4) ; as, nclo-co 
(instead of ncMo-co), iirtio-O-qv (for ineiOBTju), Tpeyjrco (for Tpeircrcd), ne- 
7rXe^a (for 7re7rXe/c-d) . 

Rem. 3. The fut. and aor. act. and middle of liquid verbs do not 
take cr, but the fut. adds w, ov/xat (coming from ea>, copai) to the pure 
stem of the verb, while the aor. simply lengthens this stem, by chang- 



70 VERBS IN a). [§ 33. 

ing the final a into q, and e into ei, and t and t> short into i and v long, 
before affixing the inflectional endings ; as, <rreXa), ecrretXa. Hence 
they belong in character to the secondary tenses. 

Rem. 4. The first aor. act. and mid. of the verbs rlBrjfii, bibafii, 
and 177/xt has k, instead of tr, for characteristic, after the analogy of 
the perf. ; as, e&j/ca, eSaxa, rjica. On the contrary, the irregular first 
aorists clna, 771/ey/ca, and e^ea have no characteristic. 

3. The mode-vowel and personal endings constitute that 
part of a verbal form which follows the tense-stem (consisting 
of the stem of the verb, with the augment, if any, prefixed, 
and the tense-characteristic affixed to it). The mode- vowel 
varies with the mode, and the personal ending with the person 
and number of the verb (as, /3ouXeu-o-/xcu, (Zovkev-cQ-fxai, povXev-e- 
o-0€, fiovXev-Ti'O-Se). But often the mode-vowel is so blended by- 
contraction with the initial vowel of the personal ending, That 
they do not appear as separate parts. Hence these two ele- 
ments, and the tense-characteristic, will be exhibited together 
in the paradigms of the verb, and separated from the verb- 
stem ; as, fiovXev-o-rjs for fiovXev-crrj-iS) fiovXcv-o-rj for jSouXev- 
<re-at. 

4. The following things should also be observed with re- 
gard to the personal endings and mode-vowels, which may be 
seen from inspection of the paradigms : — 

a) That the third person dual of the principal tenses in the 
indie, and subj. of all voices ends in oi>, and of the historical 
tenses, in r)v (occasionally, also, the sec. pers. in Attic writers). 

b) That the third pers. plur., indie, and subj. active of the 
principal tenses ends in o-i (arising from -vtl, -vo-t), and of the 
historical tenses (indie, and opt.) in -v ; while in the middle, 
the third pers. plur. of the first class of tenses ends in -irai, 
and of the second in -vro. 

c) The principal tenses in the sing, of the middle (indie, 
and subj.) end in -/zat, -a-aL, -rat, the historical tenses (indie, 
and opt.), in -/x^, ~o-o 9 -to. 

d) The mode- vowel of the subj. is always that of the indie, 
lengthened, viz. o into o>, c and a into 77, and ei into 7. 



§ 34,] VERBS IN o>. 71 

e) The mode-vowel of the opt. is always oi, except in the 
first aor. act. and middle, where it is at. 

f) The secondary or abbreviated ending of the third pers. 
plur. of the imper. act. is always the same in form (except in 
the perf.) as the gen. of the part, of the same tense. 

§ 34. Paradigms of Verbs in o>. 

In order to make a full paradigm of verbs in w, the forms 
of the pure verb are given as far as used, and the other parts, 
essential to exhibit the characteristic formations of the other 
classes of verbs, have been borrowed from verbs of those 
classes. For this purpose, the old device of a second future 
active and middle has been revived, but by taking it from 
liquid verbs, where the form actually exists. 






72 



VERBS IN g>. 

Active Voice. 



[§3*- 



S. 1. 

2. 

3. 
D. 1. 

2. 

3. 
P. 1. 

2. 

3. 

S. 1. 

2. 

3. 
D. 1 

2. 

3. 
P. 1. 

2. 

3. 

S. 2. 

3. 
D.2. 

3. 



Present. Imperfect. 

Indicative. 
Xv-o), I free e-\v-ov, 1 freed (or was freeing) 

Xv-eu, thou freest e-Xv-e?, thou freedst 

.Xv-et, fo (sAe, it) frees e-Xv-e, he freed 



\v-ctov, you two free 
\v-€tov, they two free 
Xu-o/xei/, ice free 
Xv-€T€, you free 
\v-ovo~i, they free 



i-\v-€Tov, you two freed 
€-X'v-€tt]v, they two freed 
€-\v-ofjL€v, ice freed 
e-\v-€T€, you freed 
e-Xv-oy, they freed. 



Subjunctive and Optative. 
Xu-o), I may (can, etc. ) free Xu-ot/xt, I might (etc.) free 

\v-r)S, thou may st free •' Xv-ols, thou mightst free 

\v-t], he may free Xv-ol, he might free 



\v-t)tov, you two may free 
Xv-nrov, they two may free 
\v-(DfjL€v, ice may free 
\v-t]T€, you may free 
Xv-cocn, they may free 

Present Imperative. 
\v-€,free thou 
Xi>-ero), let him free 
\v-€Tov,free you two 
\v-€tcqv, let those two free 

Xv-eiv, to free 



Xv-oitov, you two might free 
\v-oitt)v, they two might free 
\v-oifiev, we might free 
Xv-oire, you might free 
Xv-otev, they might free. 

Infinitive, and Participle. 
P. 2. \v-€T€,free ye (you) 

3. Xv-ercocrav, \ 

_ / > let them ft 

or -ovToav ) J 

Xv-cov, freeing. 



Free, 



Perfect. 



Indicative. 



S. 1. Xe-X£-Ka, I have freed 

2. Xe'-Xv-Ka?, thou hast freed 

3. Xc-Xv-kc, he has freed 
D. 1. 

2. \€-\v-kqtov, you two have freed 

3. Xe-Xv-/caroy, they two have freed 



Pluperfect. 

cXe-Xv-iceiv, I had freed 
iXe-Xv-Keis, thou hadst freed 
i\€-\v-K€ij he had freed 



eXe-Xu'-Karoz/, you two had freed 
iXe-Xv-Kelrnv, they two had freed 



§34.] 



VERBS IN co. 



73 



Middle and Passive, 



Present. Imperfect 

Indicative. 

e-\v-6fjLr]p, I ransomed (or pass.) 
e-Xv-ov, thou ransomedst 
i-Xv-ero, he ransomed 
€-Xv-6fjLe6ov, ive two ransomed 
i-Xv-ecrOov, you two ransomed 
i-Xv-icrdnv, they two ransomed 
i-Xv-ofieOa, we ransomed 
i-Xv-ecr6e, you ransomed 
i-Xv-ovro, they ransomed. 

Subjunctive and Optative. 

Xv-oLfinv, I might ransom 
Xv-oio, thou might st ransom 
Xv-oito, he might ransom 
Xv-olfxeOov, we two might ransom 
Xv-ol(t6ov, you two might ransom 
Xv-olcrBnv, they two might ransom 
Xv-oifM€da, we might ransom 
Xv-oicrOe, you might ransom 
Xv-oivto, they might ransom. 



Xv-ojjLaL, I ransom (or pass.) 
Xv-77, -ei, thou ransomest 
Xv-craL, he ransoms 
Xv-ofieSov, we two ransom 
Xv-ecrflov, you two ransom 
Xv-ecrOov, they two ransom 
Xv-opeda, we ransom 
Xv-€ct0€, you ransom 
Xv-ovrat, they ransom 

Xv-cofiaL, I may ransom 
Xv-7], thou may st ransom 
Xv-nrai, he may ransom 
Xv-cQfA€6ov, we two may ransom 
Xv-ncrOov, you two may ransom 
Xv-r)cr8ov, they two may ranson 
Xv-cofj.€da, we may ransom 
Xv-rjcrde, you may ransom 
Xv-covrai, they may ransom 

Present Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 
Xv-ov, ransom thou P. 2. Xv-ccrde, ransom ye 

Xv-eaBco, let him ransom 3. Xv-eoScocrav 

Xv-ccrdov, ransom ye two or -ecrOcov 

Xv-ecr6cov, let those two ransom 

Xv-ecrOai, to ransom Xv-6 



let them ransom, 



ofievosi 

Pluperfect. 
Indicative. 

iXe-Xv-fjLrjv, I had ransomed 
iXi-Xv-cro, thou hadst ransomed 
iXe-Xv-TO) he had ransomed 
iXe-Xv-jjicdov, wc two had ransomed 
iXe-Xv-crBov, you two had ransomed 



Perfect. 

Xe-Xv-fiai, I have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-crai, thou hast ransomed 
Xe-Xv-raL, he has ransomed 
Xc-Xv-iieOov, we two have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-crOov, you two have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-crdov, they two have ransomed iXe-Xv-adnv, they two had ransomed 

7 



74 VERBS IN o). [§ 34. 

t 

Active Voice. 

P. 1. Xe-Xv-Ka/xey, toe have freed iXe-Xv-Keifxev, ice had freed 

2. Xe-Xv-Kare, you have freed iXe-Xv-Keire, you had freed 

3. Xe-Xv-Kacri, they have freed iXe-Xv-Ktcrav, they had freed. 

Subjunctive and Optative. 
S. 1. \e-\v-Mo, I may have freed Xe-Xv-Koifxi, I might have freed 

2. \€-\v-Kr]s,thou mayst have freed \c-\v-kois ,thou mightst have freed 

3. \e-\v-KT], he may have freed Xc-Xv-kol, he might have freed 
D. 1. 

2. Xe-Xv-KrjTov, you two may have Xe-Xv-KOLTov, you tico might have 

[freed [freed 

3. X€-Xv-kt]tov, they two may have Xe-Xv-Koirnv, they two might have 

[freed [freed 

P. 1. Xe-Xv-Kcofxev, ice may havef reed Xe-Xv-K.oi}iev, we might have freed 

2. Xe-Xv-KrjTe, you may have freed Xe-Xv-KOLre, you might have freed 

3. Xe-Xv-Kcocri, they may have freed Xe-Xv-Koiev , they might have freed. 

Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 

m 

S. 2. Xi-Xv-Ke, etc., like the imperative present, in perfects with 
3. the sense of the present, in other verbs it is not used. 

D. 2. 
3. 

Xe-Xv-icevai, to have freed Xe-Xv-Koosi having freed. 

First Future. First Aorist. 

Indicative. 
S. 1. Xv-croo, I shall free e-Xv-o-a, I freed 

2. Xv-creis, thou wilt free e-Xv-aas, thou freedst 

3. Xv-nei, he will free e-Xv-ae, he freed 
D. 1. 






2. Xv-crerov, you two will free t-Xv-ararov, you two freed 

3. Xv-crerov, they two will free i-Xv-o-arnv , they two freed 
P. 1. Xv-aoficp, we will free c-Xv-aafjiev, ice freed 

2. Xv-or€T€, you will free i-Xv-o-are, you freed 

3. Xv-aovai, they will free e-Xv-crav, they freed. 

Optative {Future and Aorist). 

S. 1. Xv-aroifii, I would free Xv-o-aipi, I might free 

2. Xv'(tols, thou wouldst free Xv-crats, -o~eias, thou mightst free 

3. Xv-aoi, he would free Xv-crai, -crete, he might free 



§ 34.] VERBS IN a). 75 

Middle and Passive. 

Ae-Xv-/xe#a, ice have ransomed iXe-Xv-peda, we had ransomed 

\e-\v~o-6e, you have ransomed iXe-Xv-crde, you had ransomed 

Xe-Xv-vTai, they have ransomed iXe-Xv-vro, they had ransomed. 

Subjunctive and Optative. 
Xe-Xv-pevos a), I may have ransomed Xe-Xv-pzvos e'lrjv, I might have rans. 
Xe-Xv-pevosfis, thou may st have rans. Xe-Xv-pevos ei^s, thou mightst h. r. 
Xe-Xv-pkvos #, he may have rans. Xe-Xv-pevos a^, he might have rans. 



Xe-Xv-peva tjtov, you two may have Xe-Xv-pevco etrjTov, you two might 
[ransomed [have ransomed 

Xe-Xv-pevco tjtov, they two may have Xe-Xv-pevco elrjrnv, they two might 
[ransomed [have ransomed 

Xe-Xv-pevoi a)/iej/, we may have rans. Xe-Xv-pevoi etnpev, we might h. r. 

Xc-Xv-pevoi t}t€, you mayhcverans. Xe-Xv-pevot ei^re, you might h. r. 

Xc-Xv-pevoi wen, they may have rans. Xe-Xv-pevoi e'lnaav, they might h. r 

Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 
Xi-Xv-o-o, ransom thou P. Xe-Xv-crOe, ransom ye 

Xe-Xv-o-Oco, let him ransom Xe-Xv-crQcocrav, 

let them ransom. 



\ 



Xe-Xv-aOov, ransom you two or -o~6cov 

Xe-Xv-o-OcQv, let those two ransom 

Xe-Xv-aBaL, to have ransomed Xe-Xv-pevos, having ransomed. 

First Future. First Aorist. 

Indicative. 

Xv-o~opai, I shall ransom e-Xv-o-aprjv, I ransomed 

Xv-o-y, -et, thou wilt ransom i-Xv-aco, thou ransomedst 

Xv-creTai, he will ransom c-Xv-o-aro, he ransomed 

Xv-crojieOov, we two will ransom i-Xv-adpedov, we two ransomed 

Xv-aecrSov, you two will ransom i-Xv-cracrdov, you two ransomed 

Xv-aeo-Qov, they two will ransom i-Xv-cracr6r]v , they two ransomed 

Xv-aopeOa, we will ransom i-Xv-o-dpeSa, we ransomed 

Xv-cr€o-0€, you will ransom e~Xv-o-ao-8e, you ransomed 

Xv-o-bvrai, they will ransom i-Xv-cravro, they ransomed. 

Optative (Future and Aorist). 

Xv-croLpnv, I would ransom Xv-o~aiprp/, I might ransom 

Xv-o-oio, thou wouldst ransom Xv-o~aio, thou mightst ransom 

Xv-ctolto, he would ransom Xv-crairo, he might ransom 



76 



VERBS IN a. 



{§34. 



Active Voice. 



D. 1. 

2. 
3. 
P. 1. 
2. 
3. 

S. 1. 
2. 
3. 

D.l. 
2, 
3. 

P. 1. 
2, 
3, 



Xv-o-oirov, you two would free \v-o~anov, you two might free 

Xv-aoirnv, they two would free \v-craiTr)v, they two might free 

Xv-croLpev, we would free Xv-o-aipev, we might free 

\v-o-olt€, you would free Av-o-cure, you might free 

Xv-aoiev, they would free Xv-o-atev, -aeiav, they might free. 

Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 

Xv-cra, I may free 

Xv-arjs, thou may st free Xv-o-ov,free thou 

Xv-o-r], he may free Xv-craTco, let him free 



Xv-o-qTov, you two may free 
Xv-crrjTov, they two may free 
Xv-crcoii€v, we may free 
Xv-crr]T€, you may free 
Xv-o-coo-i, they may free 



Xv-crarov, free you two 
Xv-aarcw, let these two free 



Xv-crare , free ye 

Xv-crcLTcocravj -oravrcov, let themfree. 



S. 1. 

2. 

3. 
D.l. 

2. 

3. 
P. 1. 

2. 

3. 

S. 1. 
2. 
3. 



Infinitive and Participle (Future and Aorist). 
Xv-creiv (to) will free Xv-aai, to free (to have freed) 

Xv-acov, about to free Xv-aas, freeing (having freed), 

Second Perfect. Second Pluperfect. 

Indicative, 
irk-fyrjv-a, I appear €7T€-<fir)v-€iv, I appeared 

7T€-cprjv-as , thou appearest e7re-</>qi>-«s, thou appearedst 

7T€-(pr]v-€y he appears eVe-c/np-et, he appeared 



7T€-(j)T]v-aTov , you two appear eVe-^v-ecroz/, you two appeared 

7T€-<fir]v-aTov, they two appear e7T€-(priv-€Lrr]v, they two appeared 

n€-<pr)v-ap.€v, we appear €7T€-<fir)v-eLiJ.€v, ice appeared 

7T€-(pT]v-aT€ , you appear iire-^v-eire , you appeared 

7T€-(j)r)v-ao-i, they appear eVe-c^y-ecray, they appeared. 

Subjunctive and Optative. 

7T€-<f)r)v-cD , I may appear 7re-(j)T)v-oini, I might appear 

Tre-^rjv-ns, thou mayst appear 7r€-<$)r]v-ois, thou mightst appear 

7T€-<pr)v--n, he may appear 77€-<j)r)v-oi, he might appear 



§ 34.] VERBS IN O). 77 

Middle and Passive. 

Xv-o-olfieQov, we two would ransom Xv-aaifMeOov, we two might ransom 

Xv-o-otcrdov, you two xuould ransom \v-o-cuo~6ov, you two might ransom 

Xv-voio-Onv, they two ivould ransom Xv-o~aio~6r]v , they two might ransom 

\v-o~oifjLeda, we tvould ransom Xv-aaipeOa, we might ransom 

Xv-croia-de, you would ransom Xv-aaLcrde, you might ransom 

\v-o-oivto, they ivould ransom Xv-craivTo, they might ransom. 

Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 

Xv-a-cofxai, I may ransom 

Xu-077, thou may st ransom Xv-aat, ransom thou 

Xv-arrjTai, he may ransom Xv-o-dadco, let him ransom 

Xv-o-cofxeBov, we two may ransom 

Xv-o-r]o~6ov, you two may ransom Xv-cracrdoi>, ransom ye two 

Xv-o-Tjadov, they two may ransom Xv-o-daOcov, let those two ransom 

Xv-o-dofx^Ba, we may ransom 



Xv-crncrde, you may ransom Xv-o-aoSe, ransom ye 

Xv-crcovrai, they may ransom Xv-adadcoo-av, -o~do-6cov, let^ them 

[ransom. 

Infinitive and Participle {Future and Aorist). 

Xv-o-eo-dai, (to) will ransom Xv-o-aaOai, to ransom 

Xv-o~6fX€vos, about to ransom Xv-o-dfxevos, having ransomed. 

Future Perfect. 
Indicative. 
Xe-Xv-o-ofjLa*, I should have ransomed 
Ae-Av-077, -et, thou wilt have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-a-eraL, he will have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-o-ofieOov, we two shall have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-o-eo-Qov, you two will have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-areo-Qov, they two will have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-o-dfjieda, we shall have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-creo-de, you will have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-orovraL, they will have ransomed. 

Optative. 
Xe-Xv-croifxnv, I would have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-croio, thou wouldst have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-o-oiro, he would have ransomed 
7* 



78 



D. 1. 

2. 7T€-(f)f]v-r]Tov, you 



VERBS IN co. 

Active Voice. 



L§34. 



two may rre-cpijv-oLTov, you two might ap- 
[appear [pear 

3. 7T€-(p7]u-T]Tov , they two may Trc-cprjv-oirrjv, they two might ap- 

[appear [pear 

P. 1. 7T€-(pT]v-coii€v, ive may appear 7re-(fif}v-oifi€i>, ive might appear 

2. 7T€-(pr]v-T]T€, you may appear Tre-cprjv-oLre, you might appear 

3. 7re-4>r]v-co(ri, they may appear 7re-(pf)v-ot,€v, they might appear. 

Second Perfect Imperative, Infinitive, and Participle. 
7T€-(fir}v-e, appear thou 7T€-(fir) v-£vai, to appear Tre-ty-qv-cos. 



S. 1. 

2. 

3. 
D.l. 

2. 

3. 
P.l. 

2. 

3. 

ELI. 

2. 

3. 
D.l. 

2. 

3. 
P.l. 

2. 

3. 

S.l. 

2. 
3. 



Second Future. 

crreX-a), I will send 
c^reX-e^s•, thou wilt send 
oreX-ei, he will send 



Indicative. 



crreX-elTov, you two will send 
oteX-zItov, they two will send 
oreX-ovpeu, ive will send 
crreX-eire , you will send 
crreX-ovcrL, they will send 



Second Aorist. 

€-\ltt-ov, I left 
e-Xin-es, thou didst leave 
e-Xi7r-e, he left 

€-\i7r-€Tov, you two left 
€-Xl7t-€tt]v, they two left 
iXin-opev, ive left 
€-\ltt-€T€, you I eft 
€-\i7r-ov, they left. 



Optative (Puture and Aorist). 
o-reX-oT/xt, -0/771/, I would send XiV-oiftt, I might leave 
oreX-oI?, -oiT]s, thou wouldst send \17r-01s, thou mightst leave 
crreX-oI, -0177, he would send Xi7r-ot, he might leave 



oreX-olrov, -oitjtov, you two w. s. XtV-otrov, you two might leave 

crreX-oLTTjv, -oirjrrjv, they twoiv. s. \ltt-olttju, they two might leave 

OT€\-olp.€v , -oinpev, ive would send \'nr-oipev, we might leave 

OT^X-oire, -oir)T€, you would send XtV-otre, you might leave 

oT€\-ol€v,-oir]o~av,they would send \'nr-oi€v, they might leave. 

Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 

XtVo), I may leave 

A 17*77?, thou mayst leave Xnr-c, leave thou 

X 17177, he may leave Xi7r-era), let him leave 



§ 34*] VERBS IN a). 

Passive and Middle. 

\e-\v-a-oLjjLeSop, we two would have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-o-oicrOov, you two would have ransomed 

Xe-Xv-aoLo-Snv, they two would have ransomed 

\e-Xv-o-oliie6a, we would have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-aoicrde, you would have ransomed 
Xe-Xv-o-oivTo, they would have ransomed. 

Future Perfect Infinitive and Participle. 
Xe-Xv-aecrdai, (to) will have ransomed Xe-Xv-o-ofxevos. 



79 



Second Future. 



erreX-oupxc, I will send for 
(rreX-17, -el, thou wilt send for 
oreX-eZrai, he will send for 
arik-ov^edov, we two will send for 
crrik-fio-dov, you two will send for 
(TTcX-elo-Oov, they two will send for 
oreX-ovfieOa, we will send for 
oreX-eur^e, you will send for 
o~T€\-ovvTai, they will send for 



Second Aorist. 
Indicative. 

e-Xnr-ojjL^v, I stayed (lit. left myself) 



e-XtV-ov, thou stayedst 
i-\i7r-€To, he stayed 
i-Xt7r-6fi€6ou, we two stayed 
i-\i7r-€o~6ov, you two stayed 
€-\nr-eo~6r}v, they two stayed 
€-\L7r-6fjL€0a, we stayed 
e-Xi7r-€o-#e, you stayed 
€-\i7t-ovto, they stayed. 



Optative (Future and Aorist). 

o-reX-oifjLTjv, I would send for XtTr-oLfiijv, I might stay 

oreX-oIo, thou wouldst send for X1V-010, thou mightst stay 

crreX-oiro, he would send for Xltt-olto, he might stay 

oreX-o'ifjLeOoi', we two would send for Xltt-ol^Oov, we two might stay 

o~TeX-ol.o-6ov,you two would send for Xin-oicrBov , you two might stay 

orik-oio-Onv, they two would send for Xnr-oio~6r)v , they two might stay 

o-reX-olfjieda, we would send for Xi7r-o//xe0a, we might stay 

crreX-oicr#e, you would send for X'nr-oicrOe, you might stay 

o-tcX-oIvto, they would send for Xwr-oiin-o, they might slay. 

Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 

XiV-co/jtat, I may stay 

Xin-n, thou mayst stay Xnr-ov, stay thou 

Xi7r-r]Tai t he may stay Xnr-eoBco, let him stay 



80 VERBS IN «. [§ 34. 

Active Voice. 
D.l. 



2. Xltt-vtov, you two may leave \itt-ztov, leave ye two 

3. Arr-?7Toi/, they two may leave \l7t-€tcov, let those two leave 
P. 1. Xltt-co^v, we may leave 

2. \i7r-r)Te, you may leave Ai7r-ere, leave ye, etc. 

3. Xi7r-co(7t, /Aey 772tfy leave Ai7r-era)craz>, -<Wa>i'. 

Infinitive and Participle {Future and Aorist). 
(TTiK-eiv, (to) will send orek-cov, about to send 

\t7T-elv, to leave \17r-cov. leaving, having left. 

Passive Voice. 

First Future. First Aorist. 

Indicative. 

S. 1. \v-6fjo-onai, I shall be freed i-\v-6r)v, I iv as freed 

2. \v-6rjo-r), -€i, thou wilt be freed i-\v'6r]s, thou wast freed 

3 \v-6r)creTaL, he will be freed i-\v-Sr), he ivas freed 

D.l. Xv-dijo-opeOov, we two shall be freed 

2. \v-6rj<recr6ov,youtwo will be freed i-\v-6r]Tov,you two were freed 

3. \v-6r]cr€cr6ov, they two will be freed i-Xv-Brjrrjv, they two were freed 
P. 1. Xv8r]cr6iJL€6a, we shall be freed i-\v-8i]fxev, ive were freed 

2. \v-8r)0~e<r8e, you will be freed i-\v-8r)Te, you were freed 

3. \v-6r)o-ovTat, they will be freed e-Xv-Bno-av, they were freed. 

Optative (Future and Aorist). 
S. 1. \v-6rjcroLfjiT]v, I would be freed \v-8ei-qv, I might be freed 

2. Xv-Srjcroio, thou wouldst be freed \v-8ci-ns, thou m-ghtst be freed 

3. \v-6rjaoiTo, he would be freed \v-8eir), he might be freed, etc. 
D. 1. \v-6y](toi^€6ov, we two would be freed 

2. \v-6r]o-oio-8ov, you two ivouldbe freed \v-6ei-nrov, -Ofirov 

3. \v-6rja-oia-0rjv, they two would be freed Xv-8€lt)tt]v, -Bdrnv 
P. 1. Xv-drjo'OLfj.eOa, we would be freed \v-6eir)p.ev, -delfiev 

2. \v-8rja-oicrBe, you would be freed Xv-delrjTe, Scire 

3. \v-6t]o-oivto , they would be freed Xv-delrjo-av, -Belev. 

Subjunctive and Imperative (Aorist). 
S. 1. \v-6a>, I may be freed 

2. Xv-8[]s, thou mayst be freed \v-8r)Ti, be thou freed 

3. \v-6j), he may be freed \v-8tjtco, let him be freed 



§34.] 



VERBS IN a). 



81 



Middle and Passive 

\nr~a>H€6ov, we two may stay 
\Ln~no-6ov, you two may stay 
\i7r-rjo-0ov, they two may stay 
XiTr-afieOa, we may stay 
\i7r-ncr6e, you may stay 
\L7T-covraL, they may stay 



XLir-eoSov, stay ye two 
Xnr-eo-dcov, let those two stay 

XiV-eo-tfe, stay ye, etc. 
\i7r-ea6<D(Tav 7 -ecrOcov. 



Infinitive and Participle (Future and Aorist). 
orck-eurOai, (to) will send for crrtX-ovfievos, about to send for 

Xi7r-eo-#ai, to stay \L7r-6fievos, staying , having stayed. 



Passive Voice. 



D.l 



2. \v-6rjrov,you tivo maybe freed \v-6rjrov, he ye two freed 

3. \v-6t)tov, they two may be freed \v-6rjrcov, let those two be freed 
P. 1. \v-8g>[A€p, we may be freed 

2. Xv-6rjT€, you may be freed Xv-drjre, be ye freed, etc. 

3. \v-6(0(tl, they may be freed Xv-Orjrcoo-av , -Oevroav. 

Infinitive and Participle (Future and Aorist). 
\v-6r]o-€o-6ai, (to) will be freed Xv-Ono-SfjLevos, about to be freed 

\v-6rjvai, to be freed (to have been freed) \v-6e is, freed. 

Second Future. Second Aorist. 

Indicative. 
S. 1. TpL^-rjcroixai, I shall be rubbed, etc. e-rpifi-nv, Iioas rubbed, etc. 
[Endings like First Fut. and First Aor. in all the modes and part.] 

VERBAL ADJECTIVES TO \v-CQ. 

\vtos, fj, 6v, freed or freeable \v-reos, to be freed. 

PERFECT PASSIVE AND MIDDLE OF MUTE AND LIQUID VERBS. 



\€L7T(o, leave. 

1. XeXet/M/xat 

2. XeXcn/rat 

3. XeXci7rrat 

1. \c\etfXfjLe6ov 

2. XeXe«/>#oz/ 

3. XeXet(j(>#oz> 
P. 1. \e\cifXfjLc6a 

2. \{\€L(f)d€ 



D 



Ppex**, wet. 
f3€(3p€yp,ai 
/3<F/3pe£at 
(3e{3p€KTaL 
fiefipeyfiedov 
/3€{3p€x6ov 
Pe{3p€x6ov 
fiePpeyficQa 

3. XeXei/xjuei/ot etcrt /3e/3pey/xevoi eicri iyfrevcrfxivoi elal rjpfievoi clcri. 

Note. The endings of the imper. and infin., and of the pluperf. 

indie, are affixed with a like change of consonants, in accordance with 

the general laws of euphony (see § 4). The third pers. plur. of the 

pluperf. has rjcrau with the part, perf., as the perf. has elm. 



^evfoo, deceive. 

eyfrevaaL 

eyjsevo-Tai 

i^€Vo m p.e6ov 

tyzvcrSov 

%y\reva-6ov 

iyjsevo-fJieOa 

e^revaOe 



aipco, raise, 
rjpfiai 
rjpcrai 
rjprai 
fjpp.c6ov 
rjpBov 
rjpOov 
TJpp.€6a 
rjpSe 



82 



VERBS IN <D. 

Active Voice of Contract Verbs. 



KM, 



erificop 
irifias 
irlfjia 



S. 1. r"/xo5 

2. TLfias 

3. TLfia 

D.l. — - 

2. rijiarov lri\iarov 

3. TLfiarov Iti\l6.tt}v 



Present and Imperfect. 

Indicative. 

(ptXco ecfilXovp 

(^iXeTs 1 €(pi\eis 



(piXelrop ecpiXelrop 

(piXelrov i(f)iX€LTT]v 

P. 1. TlfACO}JL€P €TLflCOfl€P <plXoVfl€P €(f)lXoV[l€P 

2. tl fiare irifiare cptXelre icpiXelre 

3. Tip.cocTi irifjLCDV cpiXovcn icpiXovp 

Subjunctive and Optative, 

(piXco (fnkoifu 



dr/Xco 


idi)Xovp 


dnXols 


idvjXovs 


dr]\o7 


idrjXov 


SrjXoirov 


edr/XovTO* 


dnXovrop 


idr]XovTT]V 


drj\0VjJL€V 


idrjXovfiev 


3t]\0VT€ 


idqXovre 


dnXoion 


idr)Xovp. 



S. 1. Tl^G) TLflCOfll 

2. TlfiaS TlflCpS 

3. Ti/xa ri/xcp 

D.l. — - 

2. TLflCLTOP TljACpTOP 

3. TlfJLCLTOV TLfUOTTjP 
P. 1. TLfltOfl€P TLfACQfieV 

2. rifiare rificore 

3. Tificocn. rifjLcaev 



(JHkjjs 

(ptXfj 



cf)tXo7s 
(fiiXoi 



dr/Xco 

dnXols 

dr/Xol 



6'riXoi/xi 

6/7X0!? 

677X01 



(piX( 



§T)X&TOV 

dnXcorop 



drjXolrov 
dr/Xulrnv 



(piXrjTOV 

(piXrjrov (piXoiTTjV 

(piXcofiev (J)lXo7jjl€V 

(piXijre (piXoIre 

(piXwa-L (fiiXolep 

Attic Optative. 
TLficor/v, -cons, -cor) (piXoLrjP. -oins, -oltj dr]XoLT]P, -oins, -on] 

-CprjTOV, -COT\TT\P -OLTjTOP, -OLl]TnP 'OLrjTOPf-GL-qTTjP 



drjXcDfjiep drfKo7fjL€V 
drjXcore onXotre 
bnXcdciL dnXolep. 



-cpnuep, -cor/re, -coep 

S. 2. Wixa 

3. ripaTco 

D. 2. Tifiarop 

3. ripJircop 

P. 2. TLfiarc 

3. TLfxarcocrap or 

Tt/IOJVTCOZ/ 
TlflCLP 



-oiep -oir]fjL€P, -olrjTe, -ol€p. 



Tiptop, cocra. cop 

G. COPTOS 



'OLT]fJL€P, -OlT]T€, 

Imperative. 
(ptXec 677X01; 

(plXELTCO drjXoVTCO 

(piXeLTOP drjXovrop 

(piXeiTcop dnXovrcop 

cpiXelre 6eXo0r€ 

(piXciTcoomp or deXovTcocrap or 

(J)lXovptcop drjXovprcop. 

Infinitive and Participle (Present). 

(piXelp dnXovp 

dnXcop, ovcra, ovv 
G. ovptos* 



cpiXcop. ovcra, ovp 
G. ovptos 



§34.] 



VERBS IN a. 



83 



Middle and Passive of Contract Verbs. 



Present and Imperfect. 
Indicative. 

TLfJLCJfiai €TlfJLQ3flT)V tfilkovfldl ifpLkoVfirfV 

Tifxa crt/xo5 <J)i\tj, -el £(fiiXov 

ti/jlcltcu irtfiaTO </>iXeiTat ecpiXelro 

TLfJLiiifJLcdoU €TLfJLOifl€6oV (plXoVfiedoV i^iXoVfJLedoV 

Tifiacrdov erLfxaaOov (fcCkelcrdov ttyikeladov 

TifJLaadov €TLfJLdo-6rjv (\)Ckeicr6ov i<pL\eicr8r]v 

TifiafjieOa eYt/*a)/xe#a (friXovfieOa tipiXovfjieQa 

Tifiao-Qe eTLjxaa-Oe (piXelo-de e'(/)iXeto-#e 

Ti\L&vrai ircfMcovTo <f>iXovvrat. i(piXovvro 



dnXovfiat 

dnXol 

dnXovrat 

teXovficdov 

drjXovcrdov 

drjXovadov 

brjXovjjieda 

dr]Xova-6€ 

drjXovvrai 



Subjunctive and Optative. 

TifAtofJLaL TifAcpfiTjv (fiiX&fjiat, (f)iXoLfj,r]v SqXaS/xcH 

Tifia TifJLcpo <^>t\7 cj^iXolo drjXol 

TtfiaraL rifx&TO ^>CKr\Tat (f>iXoiTO dnXcorai 

TinafJLtflov TLfjicpneOov <£iXa)/ie#oi/ (f)iXoifi€6ov $t]Xa)[ie6ov 

Tifiacrdov TLjMpcrdov <f)iXrj(r6ov (fiiXo'icrdov dnXacrdov 

TifiacrOov Ti\L<&(r6r\v (j)iXr)<rdov (ptXolardrjv drjXcoaOov 

TijJL&fJLeda TifAcpfjLefla <^uXa>/ze#a (friXoifAcOa SrjXwfieOa 

Tifxao-de ri/iwcr^e (friXrjo-de (f)iXoia6e dnXaoSe 

TlfJL&VTai, TlflCOVTO (jtiX&vrat, (fiiXoivTO drjX&vrai 



idnXovfi7]V 

idrjXov 

ibrjXovro 

idnXovfiedov 

idnXovo-Qov 

ibrjXovcrOnv 

idnXovfieda 

cdrjXovade 

ibnXovvTo. 

ftijXoliirjv 

$77X010 

dnXolro 

dnXolfieOov 

dnXoladov 

SnXoio-dnv 

dnXoifxeda 

drjXola-de 

drjXoivTO. 



Imperative. 

(j>iXov 

(friXelaQco 

(frCkeiaBov 

(ptXeiadcov 

<£tXe«r0e 

(piXcladaxTav or 

(fnXclddcov 

Infinitive and Participle (Present), 
Tipao-Oat, (piXelo-Oat 

Tt/X«ftei/0?, ?7, OV CJ)lX0VfA€l>0S, 7}, ov 



S. 2. TIJJLG) 

3. TlfJLOL(r6(i> 

D. 2. Ttfiao-Bou 

3. TifidaOav 
P. 2. TLfiade 

3. TifmadaMrav or 
rijidcrdcov 



$7]XoV 

dnXovadco 

8r)Xov<r6ov 

SrjXovcrdav 

BrjXovcrde 

h-nXcLva-OaKrcw or 

8rjXod(rd<ov» 



drjXovcrdai 
drjXovfJLCVos, 17, ov. 



84 VERBS IN co. [§ 35. 

§ 35. Remarks on the Paradigms. 

1. The endings for mute and liquid verbs (except some 
variations in the tense -characteristic, for which see § 30) are 
the same through all the tenses as for pure verbs, except in 
the future of liquid verbs, which is given in the paradigm as 
the second future. Certain changes, however, take place in 
particular cases in the characteristic consonant of these verbs, 
when it comes before another consonant in the ending. For 
which see § 4. 

2. Contract verbs have all the primary tenses like other 
pure verbs, but are contracted only in the pres. and imperf. 
Out of the pres. and imperf., however, the short characteristic 
vowel is generally lengthened ; viz. a (unless preceded by e, «, 
or p, when a is simply lengthened in quantity) and e- into 77, 

and o into co ; as, drfKaxrco (£77X00)), T€TLfj,7]Ka (rt/xaco), i(pi\r)(Ta 

((^)tXea>) ; but 7r€(pa)pdKa (a being preceded by p). 

3. Verbs in oco are always contracted, those in aco except in 
the Epic dialect, and those in ceo except in Epic and Ionic. 
But monosyllabic verbs in eco (except deco, to hind, which may 
be contracted in all its forms) are contracted only when two 
c's would come together ; as, irke-cis irktis, etc. When uncon- 
tracted, contract verbs are inflected like any other pure verb ; 

as, cpiXeco, (piXhis, </>iAeei, etc. 

4. The verbs £ao), irtivaa), dt\}rd(o f Kvdco, yj/dco, cr/xda), and XP** * 
take 77 in the Attic dialect in all cases where other verbs in a<o 
are contracted into a ; as, St^, f^ 7rei^re, etc. 

5. The verb piyoa takes regularly, in Attic writers, a> and 
cp, where other verbs in ow take ov and 01 ; as, infin. piy&v, opt. 

piycorjv, etc. 

6. Certain futures in ao-w, ecra>, and lo-co (penult short), from 
stems of two or more syllables in cg>, afa, and especially t£o>, 
generally drop the cr in the indie, infin., and part, in the Attic 
dialect, then contract the a and e with the 0, and take the cir- 
cumflex ending -&, -ovp,at,, like contract verbs ; as, €\a> (for 



§ 35.] VERBS IN ©. 85 

cXdo-co), -as, -a, etc. ; TeXco (reXeo-a)), -el?, -eT, etc. ; Aco/xt© (/co/xto-co), 
-els, -el, etc. 

7. The pluperf. act. has sometimes the following variations 
from the paradigm : — 

a) -77 for -eiv in the first pers. sing, indie. 

b) -eicrav for the more common -ecraj/, in the third pers. plur„ 
indie. 

c) -oirjv, -rjs, etc. in the opt. of the second pluperf. instead of 
the more common -ot/zi, -ots, etc. 

8. The ending -et, in the second person sing. pres. and fut. 
indie, middle and pass., is used together with the form -77 by 
most Attic writers, and is regularly used by Aristophanes, and 
very generally by Plato. In the verbs (3ov\ofjLai, oi'o/zai, and 
6\j/ofxai the form -« is always used, -g being used only in the 
subj. The original form (found in the Ion. and iEol.) was 
-crai, as it was -<ro in the historical tenses. Afterwards o- was 
dropped and the vowels contracted. 

9. Instead of the periphrastic form of the third pers. plur. 
indie, mid. and pass, of the perf. and plup. of mute and liquid 
verbs, the older Attic writers sometimes use the endings arat, 
aro (common, also, in Ion. and Epic writers in pure verbs), 
aspirating the preceding pi- or kappa-mute of the root ; as, 
T€Tpi(pa.T(U (instead of r^rpip\ikvoi eicrt), €T€rd^aro (for TZTa.yp.kvoi 
770-az/), i<p0dparo (for i(f)6app.€i/oi rycrai/), Ace^oo/3iV6arai (for /cf^wpto"- 
fievoi clai). 

10. Instead of the periphrastic form of the subj. and opt. 
perf. and pluperf. mid. and pass., the verbs Krdo/zat, pipvTjo-Kco., 
i3dXXa), and Kakea have regular endings for these modes ; viz. 
subj. -co/xat, -7), -t)tcu, etc. ; opt. -fljjLrjv, -770, -tjto or cop.r)v^ -<So (also 
-010), o>to, etc. 

11. On the contrary, a periphrastic form, consisting of a 
participle with the proper form of etiu, yiyvopai, diaylyvofun, 
Kvpeco, virapxa, 7re'Xa>, e'xa), also tpxofj.cu with the future participle, 
used as auxiliaries, is sometimes found instead of the regular 
terminational form, but expressing the additional idea of some- 

8 



86 VERBS IN 0). [§ 35. 

thing being in the state or condition implied by the participle ; 
as, dTLfir)<Tas €x« (he has having dishonored, has in dishonor, 
has dishonored), XcXvkws eVo/xat, \v6fxev6s clfxi, \v6els elfii, etc. in 
all modes and voices. 

12. In like manner, also, /zeAAco with the pres., fut, or aor. 
infim forms a periphrastic future to express what is about, 
intended, or destined to take place ; as, to peXov <rvvolcreirV, what 
is destined to profit, what would surely profit. 

13. As to the dialects, the following table exhibits briefly 
the more common dialectic forms of the endings, especially 
the Ionic, Doric, iEolic, and Epic forms : — 

Indicative Active. 
S. 1. -€iv (plup.) Ion.-ea(also-ea?,-ee,2dand3dpers.) 

2. -€is (pres. and fut.) Dor. -es; iEol. -e«r0a. 
D.3. -ttjv Dor. -rav. 

P. 1. -pep Dor. -/ies. 

3. -ova- 1 (pres. and fut.) Dor. -ovn ; iEol. -o«n. 
-a o-i (perf.) Dor. -avri. 

In the imperf. and aor. act. and middle, the Epic, Ionic, and 
Attic poets use the forms -<tkov, -aKOfirju preceded by either e or 
a to express a reiterated action ; as, elnea-Kov, -es, -e, etc. 

Indicative Middle and Passive. 
S. 1. -\ir\v Dor. -\i.av. 

P. 1. -fic6a Poetic -fLeatia ; iEol. 'fjLetiev. 

3. -vto (imp.and2d aor.) Ion. -aro (e being placed before it 

in place of the connecting vowel 
in pure verbs). 
-rja-av iEol., Dor., Epic, -ev. 

Subjunctive. 

S. 1. -CD Epic •(DfJU. 

2. -rjs Epic -vo-da. 

3. -77 Epic -rjo-i ; uEol. and Dor. -7 or -«. 

Also, the Epic may use o and e as connecting vowels, in- 
stead of cd and 17. 



§ 36.] VERBS IN <o. 87 

Optative. 
S. 1. "Oirjv JEiOl. -ot]v. 

2. -ois Mol. and Ep. -oio-Ba. 

P. 3. '01VT0, -dlVTO loll. -OLCLTO, -CLlCiTO. 

Imperative. 

P. 3. •VTCDV iEol. "VTOV. 

"(rOoop JEtol. -ctBov. 

Infinitive. 
m €LV Ep. -e/xej/at, -e/zez/; ^Eol. -77*/; Dor. -6i/. 

-elz/ (sec. aor.) Ion. -ee«/ ; Dor. -kv. 

•tvai (perf. act.) MoY. -r^v ; Dor. -J^ez/, -e«/. 

■j;mi (aor. pass.) Ep. and Dor. -rjnevat, -JJ/zei/, -jj/xeii/; 

Participle. 
-as, -a era (aor. act.) iEol. -ais, -aio-a. 
-a>s (perf. act.) iEol. -av. 

-via (perf. fern.) Dor. -oucra or -eta. 

14. In verbs in aa, the Epic repeats a before a contracted a 
or a, and o or o> before or after ©, o> ; as, o^aay (for Spas), 
Spool (for Ojoai), yeAcoozros (yeAa)i>ro?), bpcocoat (Spaicrt). The Ionic 
changes a into e (as does the Doric, also, sometimes), and in 
those parts of the verb where a is followed by o, may change 
the o also into co ; as, opeco (for 6pdo>), e^pe'coiro (ixpdovro). 

15. In verbs in ew, the Epic changes the e into et (as, niseia) ; 
the iEolic into 77 (as, dSt/c^co), and the Doric into 1 (as, dSi/a'co) ; 
and where e is followed by o, the Doric changes them into i<o ; 

aS, fJL€Tpid)fl€POS (for p.€Tp€Op.€VOs). 

16. In verbs in oo>, the Ionic contracts 00 into ev ; as, d£tev- 

jne#a (d£too/xe#a). 

§ 36. ^ccerc* o/^e Verb. 

1. The general rule here is, that the accent, both in simple 
and compound verbs, is removed as far from the final syllable 
as the laws of accentuation will permit (see § 6). 



88 VERBS IN 0). [§ 36. 

Rem. 1. Monosyllabic verbs having- their vowel long by nature 
are all perispomena, except cpys and xph- 

2. In the indicative, the accent is not drawn back, in ac- 
cordance with the above rule, beyond the augment in com- 
pound verbs ; as, irapkcrxov (not irdpecrxw). 

3. In the imperative, there are excepted from the general 
rule the aorist forms, viz. eiVe, evpe, e\6k, Ide, and Aa/3e ; also 
the form in ov of the second aor. mid., which is a perispome- 
non in simple verbs, and mostly, also, in compounds (but not 
in verbs in pi compounded with dissyllabic prepositions), at 
least by the Attics ; as, \aj3ov, and dva{3a\ov. 

4. In the optative, the endings m and oi are long, and hence 
do not allow the forms to which they belong to be proparoxy- 
tones, as in other cases. 

Rem. 2. The opt. mid. of verbs in pi takes the accent on the pe- 
nult even when the last syllable is short, except ayapai, bvvapai* im- 
o-rapai, inpidprjv, and a few others, which follow the general rule. 

5. The infinitive of the first aor. act. and of the perf. mid. 
or pass, has the accent on the penult ; the infin. of the second 
aor. act. and middle, with all infinitives ending in -vai, place 
the accent (which is of the kind required by the general rules) 
on the syllable which has the connecting vowel (see the 
paradigms). 

6. The participle, in all its forms, usually retains the ac- 
cent, so far as it can be done according to the general rules 
of accent, upon the same syllable as in the nom. sing. masc. 

7. The participle of the perfect passive has the accent on 
the penult. 

8. The participle of the second aorist active and those in 
cos and eis, as well as those in eis, as, ovs, and vs from verbs in 
pi, are oxytones in the masc. and neuter, and properispomena 
in the feminine ; as, fiaXcbv, ovo-a, 6v ; lards, dcra, dv, etc. 



§ 37.] VERBS IN co. 89 

§ 37. Formation of the Tenses. 

1. From the stem of the present are derived the pres. act. 
and middle or pass., by simply annexing the proper endings 
(as shown in the paradigms), and the imperf. act. and mid. or 
pass., by annexing the endings and prefixing the augment. 

2. From the pure stem (see § 30) the fut. act. and mid. of 
pure and mute verbs (i. e. the first fut.) is derived by annex- 
ing the tense-characteristic (§ 33) or and the proper endings. 

Rem. 1. For the lengthening of the characteristic vowel of con- 
tract verbs, in the pure stem, and the Attic form of certain futures 
from verbs in eco, a£o>, and ifo>, see § 35, 2 and 6 ; and for the fut. of 
liquid verbs (second fut. act. and rnid.) see § 33, R. 3. 

Rem. 2. The following contract verbs (also a few in vco and Xco) 
retain the short vowel in all the tenses, viz. OXdco, tcXac*, oTraco, yeXdco, 
^aXdco ; £e'a), £ea>, rpeco, aXea), ap/ceco, e/xea), reXeco, aldeopai, aKeofiai ; 
dpoco ; and sometimes alveco, cupe'co, 7to#€g>, Seo), /caXeco, and iroveco. 

Rem. 3. The verbs 7n>eo>, ttXcco, Been take et/, instead of 77, out of 
the pres. and imperf, and peco takes sometimes ev and sometimes v ; 
but Kaco (Kaico) and kXcico (Kkaico) take av for 77. Several of these verbs, 
and some others, as, nvecoj TrXtco, (pevyco, kXcico, 7rcu£a>, 7rvvda.v0p.aL, 
often have their future in -crovpai (called the Doric future) , and ttL- 
7ttco and xH<° always do, while ^eco, icrSico, and ttlvco have no char- 
acteristic in the future ; as, 7recrovp.aL (from ttltttco) ; niopai (fut. mid. 
of 7tivcq), edofiai (fut. of eV0uo), ^ea) and ^eo/Luu (fut. of ^eco ; first aor. 
e X ea). 

3. The first aorist of the active and middle of pure and 

mute verbs has the pure stem and the tense-characteristic cr, 

like the future, with the augment prefixed in the indie. 

Rem. 4. For the first aor. of liquid verbs, see § 33, R. 3. But 
a'lpco, aXkofxai, laxvaivco, Kepdaivco, KoiXaivco, XevKalvco, craivco, opyaivco, 
7T€7raLV(D, and those in iavco and patveo take long a (without 1 subscribed) 
instead of 77 in the end of the root in the first aor. ; as, apai (rjpa in 
the indie, on account of the augment). Those in awco and aipco vary 
between 77 and a. 

4. The first perfect active has the pure stem, as found in 
the future, and prefixes to it the reduplication or temporal 
augment (which remains in all the modes and part.), and has 
k or the rough breathing (i. e. a aspirated) for the tense-char- 
acteristic (see § 33, 2). 



90 VERBS IN 0). [§ 37. 

Rem. 5. A few first perfects of mute verbs with a monosyllabic 
stem, change e of the stem into o ; as, K€K\o<fia (/cXe7rro)), 7T€770fi(pa 
(7re/x7rco), TtTpcxfia (rpeVco, which has also TerpcKpa), ecrrpocpa (crrpe(/>a>), 
eiXo^a (Xeyco). AeSot/ca is anomalous. 

Rem. 6. In the first perf. active (also the plup. act., and perf. and 
plup. mid. and pass., and the first aor. and first fut. pass., — the sec- 
ond aor. and fut. pass., also, when used) liquid verbs with a monosyl- 
labic stem change e (of the pure stem) into a, and Kplva), kXiVco, nXvvco, 
reive*, and KTeivco (stem rev and ktw, and hence have e changed into a 
also) drop their v before the ending ; as, crreXXa), ecrraX/ca, eVraX/xat, 
io-TakBrjV) ivTok-qv; Kplvco, K€Kpa<a, K€Kpip.ai, €KpLSrfv 9 etc. But some 
of these verbs in vco and most other verbs in va> have no first perf. 
active in good Attic writers. 

5. The first pluperfect active is formed from the tense- 
stem of the first perfect, by simply adding the proper ending, 
and prefixing the augment according to the rule. - 

6. The first aorist passive is formed from the pure stem, 
as found in the first fut. active, by adding to it the character- 
istic 6 with the proper ending, and prefixing the augment, 
which remains only in the indie. 

Rem. 7. But several pure verbs in the first aor. pass, (also in the 
perf., pluperf, and first fut. pass, and verbal adjective) add a to the 
stem before the tense-characteristic and endings. These are : — 

a) The verbs which retain a short vowel out of the pres. and im- 
perf. (see R. 2), except eXaoo (iXavvco), alveco, alpeco, Sea), x^j Ovco, 

dpOO), \l)(D. 

b) XP*** fl° S 1Ye an ora cle), 7rXea>, ^o® ; 7rpio), XP 1 ' ^ kvXlco (kv\lv- 
dco) ; {/o>, ftvco (j3vveci)), £vco ; ttciicd, tttclicd, iraXata) ; yjsavcD, aeico^ Xeuo), 
KeXevco, 6.K.OVCO. 

c) Bpaco, Opavco, AcXeto), Kpovco, xP ta) 5 an d some others, which take o* 
in some of the above tenses, but not in the perf. 

But in some of the verbs in all these classes, the o- is not always 
used in these passive forms, and is regularly dropped before another 
a in the second pers. sing. perf. and plup. ; as, rerekeaai (from rere- 
Xecrfiai) . 

7. The first future passive is formed from the first aor. 
pass, by substituting the tense-characteristic o- for the final */, 
and adding the proper endings. 

8. The perfect and pluperfect passive are formed from the 
pure stem, by adding the proper endings, and prefixing the 
augment and reduplication according to the rules already- 
given. 



§ 37.] VERBS IN 0). 91 

Rem. 8. For the euphonic changes in the final mute, in mute 
verbs, before the endings /xat, firjv, etc. in the perf. and plup. pass., 
see § 4. But when two y's or /x's would come before p., the last of 
the two is dropped. So, also, is o- before a or between two conso- 
nants in the endings; as, eXrjXeypat (for eX^Xeyy/ncu, from eXe-y^a)), 
K€KajjLfj.ai (for K€Kafj.fjLfiai, from Kafinrco), TTeiteia-ai (for 7re7reio-o-at, from 
7T€l6(o), 7T€(pav6€ (for TrecfravaSc), etc. 

Rem. 9. The characteristic *> in liquid verbs is commonly changed 
into or, but occasionally into /x, and in a few cases is dropped before p, 
in the perf. and plup. pass, endings ; as, rjdvo-pat (from rjdvvco). But 
the v reappears before other letters in the endings, as, t, cr,6, whether 
in these tenses or the aor. and fut. pass. ; as, 7re(^ao-/xat 5 Trk^avrai, 
ityavdrju. 

Rem. 10. The verbs rpeirco, rpe(f)co, and arpecpco change e of the 
root into a, in the perf. pass, (but not in the aor.) ; as, TerpapLfiai, re- 
6pajjLfxai, earpafifiai. 

9. The future perfect is formed by adding o-o/zat to the stem 
of the perf. and lengthening the characteristic vowel, when 
short in the perf. 

10. The verbal adjectives in tos and rios are formed by- 
adding these endings to the pure stem, as found in the first 
aor. pass. ; as, \vtos, Xvtzos (c-Xv-^p) ; o-toKtos^ -rios (e-orraX- 
6tjv) ; Tikecrros {i-reXeo-'Brjv). 

11. The second aorist (of all voices) is derived from the 
pure stem by adding the proper endings and prefixing the 
augment, which, however, remains only in the indie. 

Rem. 11. In deriving the pure stem from the stem of the pres. the 
strengthening consonants (see § 30) must be dropped in mute and 
liquid verbs, and the strengthening vowels and diphthongs before the 
characteristic be shortened, generally rj and at into a, et and t into t, 
and cv into v ; as, eXadov (from \-q6co), eXtirov (Xcittcd), €<pvyov ((pevyco), 
erptftrjv (rpi/3a>), i)(ap' t l v (X^P *)* 

Rem. 12. Mute verbs with a monosyllabic stem and e for a stem- 
vowel, often, and liquid verbs always, change the e into a in the sec- 
end aorist ; as, erpenrov eTpcnr6p.r]v irpdirriv (rpe7rco), irpdfprjv (rpecpco). 

€KXa.TT7]V (KkeTTTCo). 

Rem. 13. The second aor. is not formed from verbs with a regu- 
lar derivative ending (as, ao>, ceo, oa>, eva>, aivco, woo, a£aj), nor often 
in verbs having a tau-mute for characteristic, nor when it would be 
distinguished from the imperf. only by the quantity of the penult. 
But in the last case the second aor. pass, is sometimes found, since 
here it differs from the imperf. ; as, iypdcfrrjv ; iicXivTjv. 



92 



VERBS IN a. 



K37. 



Rem. 14. Only a few verbs have both aorists in the act. and mid., 
but more in the pass. In the active, the second aor. is but little used 
in regular verbs, and in the passive, the tragic poets generally prefer 
the first aor., though not so generally the prose-writers. Tpenco is the 
only verb which has both aorists in all the voices, or even in the active 
and passive at the same time. 

12. The second perfect, also, is derived from the pure stem, 

and has the same endings, and reduplication or augment, as 

the first perfect. 

Rem. 15. But the short a of the pure stem in the second aor. is 
lengthened into tj (or a when preceded by p) in the second perf., e is 
changed into o, and X (coming from et of the pres.) into ot, while ij is 
changed back to ev, as in the present, and i(not from et) becomes long 
again ; as, reOrjXa (ddWco), eKrova (kt€lvco, stem ktcv-), XeXotira (Xei7ra), 
pure stem X177-), 7re<pplKa ((fypicrcrco, stem (ppXit-), rrecpevya {(pevyco, stem 
<f>vy-) . 

Rem. 16. It is from the partiality of this tense to the sounds o and 
ot that the anomalous perfects olda, eotxa, eppcoya, and e'lcoda have 
arisen. 

13. The second pluperfect is derived from the second per- 
fect, like the first pluperfect from the first perfect, and the 
second future passive from the second aor. pass., like the first 
fut pass, from the first aor. pass. 



These examples may be 

kcdXvcd, hinder, 
dvco, sacrifice, 

7TL(TT€VCO, trUSt. 

Kpovco, knock, 
kXc/co, close, 
€7riTr)b€voc>, pursue, 
ddLKtco, wrong, 
C*]T€cd, seek, 
olKodop.€(Oy build, 
7-eXeco, accomplish, 

epcoraco, ask. 

OrjpdcD, hunt, 
io-Tidco, entertain. 
Trrepoa), give wings 



EXAMPLES for practice. 

inflected, the tenses formed, and exercises constructed on them. 



to. 



7r€p.7r(0, send. 
XetVco, leave, 
rp//3a), rub, 
ypdcf)cD, write. 
dXei^xa, anoint. 
(3\d7TT<D> injure. 
/cXeVra), steal. 
p'ltttcd, throw. 
?tX€kg), weave. 
Xeyco, say. 
aXXdcro"a>, change. 
KT]pv(rcrc0, proclaim. 
npdcro-cD, do, 
rdcrcra), arrange. 



epei'Sa), rest upon. 
7m'0a>, persuade, 
dvvrco, perform. 
KOfilfa, bring. 
iyKcopLLa^co, praise. 
e^erd^a), examine. 
o-reXXa), send. 
Kpivco, judge. 
kXiVo), lie down. 
6gvi>a>, provoke, 
(fiaivco, appear. 
atpa), raise. 
(fiOeipco, destroy. 
dp.vvcD, repel. 



$ 38.] VERBS IN fu. 93 

SECTION II. 

VERBS IN pi. 

§ 38. Regular Verbs in pi. 

1. Some pure verbs, with the characteristic «•, a, o, or S, 
lengthen these vowels (a and e into rj, o into o>, and £ into £) in 
the indie, pres., imperf., and second aor. active, and annex to 
them directly, without a connecting vowel, in both the active 
and middle or passive, endings somewhat different from those 
of verbs in g>. But the other tenses are formed as in other 
pure and contract verbs (see paragraph 4). 

Rem. 1. The lengthened characteristic vowel, however, becomes 
short again in the dual and plural, except in the second aor. of Hcrrrjpi 
and o-fievvvjjLi (€<ttt]v and ecrfirjv), where it remains long in all numbers, 
and in the imperat and inhn. ; as it does also in certain second aorists 
formed after the analogy of verbs in pi from the verbs /3atVco, <pSduco, 
aXiaKopai, /3ioo), /3i/3/30)o-kg), yiyv6)(TKco> didpdo-Koa, bvco, and (pvco (see 
§ 39, 2). 

2. Verbs of this class, also, beginning with a single conso- 
nant and having a monosyllabic stem, take a reduplication in 
the present and imperfect, consisting of the first consonant 
with i (as, ri^tu, stem 6e, the cognate r being used instead of 
6 in the reduplication, according to § 4, 8) ; but where the 
root begins with or or 7rr, the pres. and imperf. receive an as- 
pirated i (I) instead of the reduplication ; as, tarrjpi (stem o-ra). 

Rem. 2. Besides those beginning with a single consonant, a few 
other verbs in pi take the reduplication ; as, Kixprjph nipTrX-qpi, and 
7TLfji7rpr)fxi. In the last two, p is introduced between the augment and 
the stem, for the sake of euphony, which, however, is dropped, for 
the same reason, when the verbs are compounded with eV and vvv, 
and v becomes p before it ; as, ipniTrprjpi, ouprrinX^pi, but eV«r//x- 
nXrjv. 

3. In the subjunctive the short characteristic vowels e, a, 
and o are contracted with the endings, and in the optative they 
receive an i between them and the ending, the syllables thus 
formed, in both cases, taking the accent. 






94 VERBS IN fJLl. [§ 38. 

Rem. 3. The ending 6i of the sec. pers. imper. act. is used in the 
second aor. only in the form arrjOu in regular verbs in /xi, but is re- 
tained in several second aor. and syncopated perfects formed after the 
analogy of verbs in /xt (see RR. 1 and 6) ; as, ftrjSi, yv<*>6i, earaOi^ de- 
8l6l, etc. And of these, ottjOl and ftrjBi in composition are contracted 
into ara and /3a, but chiefly in poetry ; as, Trapdara, Kard^a. 

Rem. 4. The full ending am (sec. pers. pres. mid.) is generally 
retained in the indie, the a being regularly rejected and the vowels 
suffering contraction only in the subj. The ending ao is usually con- 
tracted only in the second aor. ; in the imperative pres. and indicative 
imperf. the full form is generally used in most verbs, and regularly in 
dido fiat. 

Rem. 5. The optative active often drops the 77 in the endings of the 
dual and plural, and in the third pers. plur. uses -ev for -rjaav. 

4. There are some peculiarities of verbs of this conjugation, 
in the parts which follow the common conjugation, which 
should be noticed : — 

a) The first aor. forms (see § 33, R. 4) l&paz, §*a, and eda>Ka 
are commonly used in the sing, instead of the second aorists 
Z8r) v, t]v, eSoi/, but are used in the plural (and in the mid., except 
fjKdfirjv) only by a few Attic writers. 

b) The perf. and pluperf. of to-r^tu have the augment aspi- 
rated, which in the plup. is often el instead of e ; as, eo-r^/ca, 

€0~Tr)K€LV Or €l(TTT)K€lV. 

Rem. 6. For the syncopated form of the perf. and plup. of eorrjKa 
and other verbs, see § 39, 3. 

c) The characteristic vowel is lengthened in the perf. act. 
and in the future and aor. act. and middle, as in pure verbs, 
except that rlOriyn and fy/xi lengthen it into e* in the perf. ; as, 
reflected, eha. The a in these verbs remains, also, in the perf. 
and plup. pass. ; but in other cases the characteristic vowel is 
short throughout the mid. and pass. ; as, SeSo/xat, eara/xT^, IrkQ^v, 
idoOrjv, Tz6r\<jo\mi. 

5. Verbs in /xt frequently or regularly borrow many forms 
from their primitives in da, ea, o'a>, and vco : — 

a) In the imperf. sing. S/Sooxu is regularly declined like a 
contract in 6a (ibloow, ovr, ov), and riOrjfu and hjfu often like a 
contract in eco ; as, irlOow, etc. 






§ 38.] VERBS IN /Lit. 95 

b) In verbs in vfii the subjunctive and optative are regularly- 
formed from a pres. in vco, and often other forms of the pres. 
and imperf. act., but not usually in the middle ; the second 
aor., both act. and mid., is almost wholly wanting. 

c) The optative imperf. and second aor. mid. and pass, of 
ri^/xt, ujfj.ii and didcofii often takes the form -oifirju, -oio, -otro, 
like the regular conjugation. 

Rem. 7. The perf., pluperf., and second aor. act. of lorrjfiL have 
an intransitive meaning, to stand. 

6. The following are the paradigms of Io-ttj/jli, to station, 
Tidrtfii, to put, dldcofxi, to give, deUvvfii, to show, with the second 
aor. mid. iirpid^v, I bought, to supply the place of the second 
aor. mid. of io-tt?/u, which is not used, and the second aor. act. 
cdvv (from dwco), I entered, to complete the paradigm of verbs 
in vpi. 



96 



I place. 
S. tarrjfu 

LOTTOS 
loTX]CTi 

D. 



VERBS IN fit. 

Active Voice. 

Present Tense. 

Indicative. 
I put. I give. 

ri6r)pi bibcopi 

tl6t]s bibcos 

rlO-qcn bib(DO~i 



[§88. 



S. 



D. 

LO-TrjTOV 

lorrjrov 
P. icrrcopev 
to-rfjre 

lcTTQd(Tl 

S. (taraSi) 

larr] 

lararco 
D. Icrrarov 

P. larare 

lorarcocrav or 

iuTCLVTCOV 

lot aval 



terras 



nOrjrov bibSrov 

nBrjrov bibcorov 

nSoapev bib&pev 

TiOrjre bibcore 

tlOcoctl bibcocn. 

Imperative. 

(TiOeTi) (biboBi) 

riOei bibov 

TiOera) biborco 

riSerov biborov 

nBercov biborcov 

rl&erc bibore 

ndercoo-av or biborcoaav or 

Ti$€VrCOV blboVT&V 

Infinitive. 
TiOkvm bibovai 

Participle, 
n&eis bibovs 



I show. 
beLKvyp.1 
betKiws 
beivvo'L 



Icrrarov 


riBerov 


biborov 


be'iKwrov 


torarov 


riBerov 


biborov 


beiKvvrov 


tcrrapev 


riBepev 


bibopev 


b€iKWfJL€V 


to-rare 


rlBere 


bibore 


beiicwre 


io-rao-L 


nBelcn or 


bibovai or 


beacvvai or 




nBeacn 


bibodai 


beaawacri 




Subj 


mctive. 




loray 


tlBco 


bibS 


beaawco 


lorrjs 


TiBfjS 


bibcos 


beiKvvrjs 


lorfj 


TlBfj 


bibco 


beucvvrj 



beiKvvrjrov 

beacvvrjrov 

beiK.vvcop.ev 

beiKvvrjre 

beiKvvcocji. 

(beitcwBi) 
beiKvv 
beacvurco 
be'iKwrov 
beiKvvrcov 
be'iKwre 
beacvvrcooav or 
beacvvvTcov. 

beacvvvai* 

beucvvg. 



§ 38.1 



VERBS IN fit. 

Middle and Passive. 

Present Tense. 

Indicative. 



9* 



s. 


tarafiai 


TiBefiai 


dibofiat 


dciKWjjLai 




laraa-ai 


TiBccrai 


ftidocrai 


fteiKwcrai 




(tora) 


(riBrj) 








ta-Tarat 


riBerat 


SldoTat, 


detKPvrat 


D. 


la-rdfieBov 


ridefiedop 


didSfxeBov 


deLKirufieBov 




taracrdov 


TiBeo-Bov 


dibo&Bov 


dciKvvo-Bov 




IvtcktBov 


TiBeaBov 


bihocrBov 


Seifcwo-Bov 


P. 


lardfieBa 


TiBifieBa 


didofxeBa 


SeiKvufxeBa 




tarao-Be 


TiBeo-Be 


MdotrOe 


deiKwaBe 




IdTavrai 


riBcvrai 


ftidovrat 


deiKvuvrac. 






Subjunctive. 




S, 


iotcb/zch 


TlBSfUU 


didoofiai 


deiKvucofiai 




larfj 


TiBfj 


6\8« 


decKVVT] 




loTrjrai 


nBfJTai 


StSdarat 


SeiKvvnTai 


D 


ioroDfjLeOov 


TiBoofJLeBov 


didcofieBov 


deiKvvoifieBov 




l(jrr]<j6ov 


TiBrjorBov 


didooaBov 


dcLKvvno'Bop 




l(TT7](T60V 


TiBrjcrBov 


SibcocrBov 


beiKvvnaBov 


P. 


IcrToofieBa 


TlB<£>\XtBa 


didcofieBa 


deiKwcoficBa 




l(TTJ](Td€ 


riBrjcrB€ 


diftcoaBe 


deiKiwna-Be 




Icrr central 


TiBwirai 


diBeovrai 


SeiKvucovrai. 






Imperative. 




S. 


la'Taa'o 


TiBeao 


didoao 


heiKvva-o 




(1(JT(0) 


(tlBov) 


(SioW) 






lordadco 


TiBkvBa 


didoaBoo 


SeiKiwaBco 


D 


Ivrao'Bov 


rlBcaBou 


hiftovBov 


heiKwaBov 




'KTTaaScov 


TiBsaBoov 


diboaBcov 


&€LKVVCrB(OV 


P. 


IcrracrBe 


TiBecrBe 


Stdoo-Be 


deiicvvcrBe 




la'TaaOcoaav or 


TiBeaBcoo-av or 


dcboo'Bcoo'av or 


dciKvvcrBcDcrav or 




lordo-Bcov 


TiBeaBcov 


biboo-Boav 


beiKVv o-0g>i/ . 






Infinitive. 






lorao-Qai 


TiBeo-Bai 


Sldoo-Bat 


SeiKWcrBai. 






Participle. 






iaTapevos 


TiBepevos 


8ld6[M€VOS 


SftKW/xei/off. 



9 



98 



S. tarrjv 
Icmjs 
torrj 

D. 

torarov 
io-rdrrjv 

P. torajiev 
to-rare 
Icrraaap 



S. loTalrjv 
laTalrjs 
icrrair] 

D. 

iaravnrov 
Icrrai-qrqp 

P. l(Trair)fJi€v 
Icrrairjre 
lo-rairjaav 



S. €OTT]V 
€<TTr}$ 

M 

€0T7] 



earrjrov 
i<Tri)TT)v 

eOTTJfieV 

eorrjre 
eorqcrav 



VERBS 


IN fit. 


Active Voice. 


Imperfect. 


Indicative. 


irL6r)V 


ebibcov 


eridrjs 


ibibcos 


irWrj 


eblbco 


iriOerov 


ebiborou 


inBerrjv 


ibeborrju 


irldefiev 


ibibofieu 


erlBere 


id loot e 


erlBeaav 


iblboo-av 


Optative. 


riBeirjv 


blboLTjV 


riBelns 


bibol-qs 


riBeir) 


biboirj 


riBe'uqrov 


bibolrjrov 


rideirjrrjv 


hiboLr)rr]v 


riBcln^ev 


biboirjuev 


riBeirjre 


bibolrjre 


riBeirjo'av 


bibol-qo'av 


(See also § 


38, R. 5.) 


Second Aorist. 


Indicative. 


eBrjV 


ebcov 


eBrjs 


ebons 


Wrj 


e'bco 


eBerov 


eborov 


lBkrr\v 


eborrjv 


eBefiev 


ebofiev 


Were 


ebore 


cBeoav 


eboo-av 



l§38. 



ibeinvvv 
ebeiKvvs 



ibei 



€LKVU 

ibeiKwrov 

ibeiKvvTTjv 

ibeiKWfiev 

ebeiKwre 

ebeiKwaav. 



beiKVvoifJLt 

bciKVVOLS 

beiKiwoL 






beiKvvoirov 

beLKvvoirnv 

beiKvvoLfxep 

beiKvuoire 

beiKVvoiev. 



ebvv 
ebvs 



ebvrov 

ibvrrjv 

ebvfxev 

ebvre 

ebvaav. 



§38.] 



VEEBS IN III. 



99 







Middle and 


Passive. 








Imperfect. 








Indicative. 




s. 


laTdjJLTju 


iriBefjirjv 


iftidofirjv 


id€LKVVfJL7]V 




IVTCKTO 


eTiOeao 


€$idoaro 


ideiKvvao 




(t(TT(o) 


(iri&ov) 


(idldov) 






ICTTOTO 


€Tl6€TO 


eSt'Soro . 


idcLKWTO 


D 


la-rdfjiedov 


€TlBk\LtBoV 


idibofxeBov 


edeucvvficBov 




loTCLO-QoV 


iriBecrBov 


ididoaBov 


iheiKWo-Bov 




l(TTa<r6r}V 


iriBccrBrjV 


ididoaBrjv 


id€LKvva"Br]v 


P. 


lo-TCLfieda 


irtQefjieda 


idibofxeBa 


edeiKvvfieBa 




lo-raarde 


irlBea-Be 


idldoo-Be 


ifteiKwcrBe 




Icrravro 


iriBeVTO 


iftldovTO 


idetKWVTO. 






Optative. 




S. 


laTaljirjv 


TlBetfJLrjV 


biholyL7]v 


detKWOLfJLTjV 




Icttcllo 


TlBclo 


bihoio 


bcLKVVOLO 




IcttoIto 


TlBflTO 


hihoiTo 


dciKvvoiro 


D. 


loraifxedov 


riBeifieBov 


bihoiyieBov 


dcLKWOLfJLcBoU 




l(TTCU(r6oV 


TiBelcrBov 


hihoicrBov 


deiicvvoLcrBov 




loTaurBrjv 


TiBcicrBrjv 


$i§olcrBr)V 


beiKWoicrB-qv 


P. 


l(TTaLfJL€0a 


TiBeifieBa 


bidoifxeBa 


deucpvoijieBa 




l<TT<ii(r6e 


TiBtio-Be 


dtdolaBe 


heiKirvoiarBe 




IVTCUVTO 


TlBflVTO 


SiboivTO 


bciKVVOlVTQ. 






Second Aorist. 








Indicative, 






€7TpLafJLT]V 


iBepijv 


ihojiriv 






inflected 


inflected 


inflected 






like 


like the 


like the 






laTcifirjv. 


Imperfect. 


Imperfect. 





100 



VERBS IN pi. 



[§38. 



Active Voice. 

Subjunctive. 





oto3 inflected 


6(0 inflected Sd> inflected 


bv<D inflected 




like the 


like the like the 


like 




Present. 


Present. Present. 
Optative. 


beiKvvoi). 




orairjp inflected 


6%ir)v inflected bo'irjv inflected 


bv-nv, -rjs, -77, 




like the 


like the like the 


-rjToVf-rjrrjV, 




Imperfect. Imperfect. Imperfect 


-t)ijl€v, etc. 






Imperative. 




s. 


CTTrjdl 


6es bos 


bvfa 




CTTT)T(0 


Serco boTOD 


bvToa 


D. 


OTTjTOV 


Qkrov boTov 


bvrov 




OTTjTCOV 


Oercov borcov 


bvTcav 


P. 


<TTT\T€ 


Sere bore 


bvT€ 




aTrjToocrav or 


6eT(t>aav or borcoaav or 


bvTcoaav or 




(TTavr&v 


6kvT(OV bovrciav 
Infinitive. 


bvvrwv. 




arrival 


Selvai bovvai 
Participle. 


bvvai. 




ards 


Bels bovs 


bvs. 



Rem. 8. The following table exhibits the chief dialectic varia- 
tions of verbs in pi : — 

Indicative Active. 

S. 3. -a 1 Dor. -rt, sometimes -j/ri. 

P. 3. -vai Dor. -vti ; Ion. dcri, used also in certain cases by 

the Attic. 
-crai/ -^Eol., Dor., Epic, simply v added to the radical 

vowel. 
In the indie, act. sing., the iEol. lengthens the radical vowel a into 
at, o into 01, and the Bceotic e into «. 

Indicative Middle and Passive. 
P. 3. -vraij -vto Ionic -arai, -aro. 

The iEol. and Epic lengthen the radical vowel c into?; in the indie, 
mid. and pass, of verbs in pi. 



§38.] 



VERBS IN /it. 

Middle and Passive. 



101 





Subjunctive. 




like 


6a>fiai 
like the 


bSfUU 

like the 


t<rrcS/xcu. 


Present. 
Optative. 


Present. 


7TpiaiflT]V 

inflected 


BeijjLTjv 
inflected 


bolpnv 
inflected 


like 


like the 


like the 


iaraipLnv. 


Imperfect. 
Imperative. 


Imperfect. 


(jrpiaaro) irpioa 
like the 


(Seao) Oov 
like the 


(Socro) bov 
like the 


Present. 


Present. 


Present. 


vTao-Bat, 


Infinitive. 
QkvQai 


hoo-Qai. 


arapevos 


Participle, 
depevos 


bofievos- 



Subjunctive. 
S. 2. -jjs Epic -rjTjs. 

3. -fj _ Epic -7777. 

-a> Epic -c3o"t, -o)7]o , i i -0)77. 

The Epic and Ionic use, also, the uncontracted forms in the sub- 
junctive, as in contract verbs, and lengthen and repeat the radical 
vowel as in those verbs (see § 35, 14). 

Infinitive. 
^Eol. -pevai ; Dor. -/iei>, -fxeiu ; Epic -ucwu, -/xev. 



-vai 



EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 



fcvywfii) yoke. 
Kixprjfju (root \pa) 9 lend. 
ovivTjfjLL (root ova), aid. 
bvvapai (mid.), able. 

bifyfiai (-«■>), look for. 

9* 



£kvw\t.k (C € )» boil, 
izryyvvpi (iruy"), fasten. 

poavwpi (po), spread. 
o-Tpavirvfii (orpo), strengthen, 
pr\yw\ki (fay)) break. 



102 VERBS IN p*. [§ 39. 

§ 39. Irregular Verbs in *u. 

1. Inflection of in pi, to send, ei/u, Zo be, etjii, fo go (often 
future), $J7fu, to 5a?/, say 2/es, assert, Kel^ai, 2o Zie down, and 
^at, to seZ (the two last perfects middle with the sense of the 
present). 

I. ltj/jlCj I send, Upca,) I go (send myself). 
Present Tense. 
Indicative Active. 
Ind. S. trjfxi 

17) s 
17) (TL 

D. 

i€TOV 



Indicative Middle and Passive. 
S. tefiai 

tf 



l€TOV 
P. L€fJL€l> 
L€T€ 

teicri or laai. 



leaai, it) 
icrai 

D. UfieOou 
tecrdov 
lecrOov 

P. lefieOa 
tecrde 
"icvrai. 



Subj. ia>, like ti6g> from TiQrjpi. Subj. t%uu, like ndcopai. 
Imp. S. tei, ierco, D. lerov, leTwv, Imp. S. tecro or toi/, UaSco, D. 
P. terf , lerooaav or ikvrav. teo-Qov, leoScov, P. tecrtfe, ieo-#<»- 

cray or leo-QtoV. 
Inf. tez/ai. Inf. iecr0afc. 

Part. tetV, eitra, €i>, G. Uptos. Part. Ufievos, rj, ov. 

Imperfect. 
Indicative Active. Indicative Middle and Passive. 

S. lr)V (tciv), ?7)S, 17), D. l€TOV, S. UfJLTJV, UaO OY 10V, l€TO, D. 

teT^i/, P. Ufi€P, cere, Ucrav. UfieOov, ?€<r6ov, ieaOnv, P. te/xe- 

#a, Tecr^e, levro. 
Opt. ieiV, like TiSeiTjv. Opt. icifup, like TiOciprjv. 

Second Aorist. 
Indicative Active. Indicative Middle. 

Ind. S. r)V S. (e/x7;i/), ei/x^y 

5? etcro 

5 CtTO 



§39.] 
D. 

P. 



VERBS IN fu. 



103 



ctoi/, drop 
erqv, elrrjp 
e/zei>, etfjL€V 
ere, etre 
eow, etcraj>. 



D. etfieOop 

€L(r6oP 

et(r07)P 

P. elficda 
etcrtfe 



Cipro. 



Subj. S, inflected like the Pres- Subj. S/xa*, inflected like the 



ent. 
Opt. clrjp^ like the Imperfect. 
Imp. &, erco, like the Present. 
Infin. clvai. 
Part, ety, etcra, eV. 
Perf. ctAca. 
Plup. etAceti/. 
Fut. rj(T(0. 

First Aor. §m. 



Present. 
Opt. clfirjp^ like the Imperfect. 
Imp. (ecro) o£, like the Present. 

Infin. eadaL. 

Part, efieposi 7], op» 
Perf. etttat. 
Plup. elfirjp. 
Fut. £6r)(rofiai. 

First Aor. u0qv. 



ii. elfjbl, lam,, elfu, I go, will go. 

Present Tense. 





Attic Forms. 


Indie 


S. ei/xt 


elfu 






(eis) et 




> t 


-? 




eCTTt 


etcrt 




iorop 


troz/ 




€OTOP 


troy 




» / 


» 




ecr/xev 


lfi€P 




s / 


M 




core 


LT€ 




> / 


»f- t T 

tacrt (etc 




e«ri 


Subj. 


S. & 


» 
ta> 




■s> 


»f 




11? 


IflS 




» 


# 




?7 


m 




D. ^TOI/ 


ITjTOP 




9 


*f 




^roy 


itjtop 




P. 2>/iez/ 


l<OfJL€P 




» 


*f 




rJT€ 


irjre 




Sxrt 


tcocrt 



Dialectic Forms. 

iffd (JEol.) 

€&,eWt(Ion.,Ep.) elcrda (Ep.) 
eW (Dor.) 



etiteV, ifxep, et/xes (L, E., Poet , D.) 



tacrt (etcrt rare) eacri, eVrt (Ion., Dor.) 



ea>, eta) (Ion., Ep.) 



V&z(Ep.) 
i?7<rt (Ep.) 



Sites, tco/xei/ (Dor.) to/xej/ (Ep.) 
eWt (Ion.) 



104 



VERBS IN /Lit. 



[§39. 



Imp. 


S. 


*1<t6l (eV(o-)o) 


Wl (el) 






6OTC0 (tJtcd) 


yf 
LTCO 




D. 


€(TTOV 


LTOV 






eoToav 


Xtcov 




P. 


ecrre 








coraxrav, ecr- 


'iTeocrav, Iovtcov, 






TG)I>, OVTCDV 


'Itcov. 



ecrcro (Ep.) 



%<ro (Dor.) 



Infin. 



Part. 



zivai 



QOV, OV 



ievai 



ovtos 



e/x(/i,)e^ai,e/x(/x)ev i/x(/i)ei/ai, i- 
(Ep.), ixtv (Ep.), 

TjfjLev eljjLev, rjpes 'ivai (rare). 
eljxes (Dor.) 
lav, lovcra, lop icov (iovcra, ecGcra, €V(ra, €a(r[o-)a, 
ioiaa Dor.), iov (Ion.) 
G. Iovtos e'ls also in some oblique cases 
(Dor.). 



Imperfect. 



Indie. S- rjv (rj, rj/JLT/v) 
rjs, rjcrda 



J], TJV 



f]€LV, fjia, fja 
yeis, f]€L(T0a 

T]€L, f]€LV 



ea, rja, eov, e&Kov (Ion., fjrjv Ep.) 
€7]s, erjada (Ep., eas Ion.) 
rjev, rjrjv, e(TK€ ^'ie,^e, te (Ep.) 
(Ion., rjs Dor.) 



D. rjTOV, rjCTTOV f]€LTOV, fjTOV 

rJT-qv, rjoTTjV r]€iTr]V, jjrrjv 



P. r)\L£V 


fjeifxev, r\\i*v i 


TjT€, 7JOT€ 


T]€IT€, fjT€ \ 


rjcrau 


rjecrav e 


Opt. S. €?r)V 


t0LpLL,l0LT]v[l€L7]v) 


€*r)s 


'lots, loirjs 


€LTJ 


loLj LOL7] (et/;) 


D. e"r)TOV, €LTOV 


XoiTOV 


cItjttjv, elrrjv 


lolrrjv 


P. clrjfxev, clfiep 


loipsv 


ei^re, €?re 


m 
10LT€ 


elrjorav, etev 


Xoi€V 



rjfjL€s (Dor.) 
%are (Ion.) 
k'&av, eacrav 
(Ion.) 



trrjv, Itov (Ep.) 
770/xei/ (Ep.) 

fjlcrav, ycrav, 
fj'iov, io-ai/(E.,I.) 



Fut. of dpi (I am) : eo-o/zai (Dor. iao-ovfiai). Reg. through 
all the modes, except the syncopated form eo-rat, for ccrerat, 
indie, third sing. 



§ 39.] VERBS IN /Lit. 105 

in. <f>7]fjLi (cj)dcrfeco), I say, say yes, assert. 

Present. 

Ind. S. (fulfil D. P. (pafiev 

(prjs (parol/ (park 

(f>r)(ri (parov (petal 

Subje S. (pco, (pfjs, (f)rj, D. (frrjrov, (prjrov, P. (pcofxev, (prjre, (paxrt. 

Imp. S. (pa6i or (pd6i D. (pdrov P. (pare 

(paToa (pdrvv (pdraxrav, (pdvrcov 

Inf. (pduai. Middle (pdaQai. 

Part, (pas, (pacra, (pdv, G. (pdvros. Middle (pdfxevos. 

Imperfect. 

S. €(prjV D. P. €(pafl€V 

c(pr)s, €(prj(T$a €(parov €(pare 

€(prj i(paT7]v etyaerap 

Opt. S. (patTjVy (palrjs, (pair], D. (palrjrov, (pairjTrjv, P. (pal(j))ix€v, 
(pal{rj)r€, (palrjaav or (palev. 

Fut. (£170-0). Aor. €(pTjcra. 

Imperf. Mid. ((pdfirjv. 

iy. Kel/xac, I lie down (lit. / haw laid myself down) . 

Present. 



Ind. S. Ketpat 




D. K€lfJL€6oP 


P. KtlfxeQa 


Kelo-ai (mat 


Ep.) 


K€l(r6oV 


Ktlo-Be 


Kclrai 




K€lo~6oV 


Kelvrai 


Subj. K€(Ofiai, like Xva>fiai. 






Imp. S. K€?(TO 




D. KclcrSov 


P. Ketone 


Kclo-OcO 




K€iO'6a)V 


K€l(r$(0(rav 


Inf. Ktio-Oai. 








Part. Kclfievos, rj, ov. 




Imperfect. 




S. eKclfXTJV 




D. iK€lfJL€0OP 


P. iK€lfJL€0a 


€K€lO'0 




€Keio-dov 


€K€HT0€ 


€K€lTO 




€K€l(T07]V 


€K€lVTO 



Opt. Kcolfirjv, like \vol}ir)V. 



106 VERBS IN fit. [§ 39* 

y. rj/jbai, KaOrj/xaL^ I have seated myself \ sit. 

Pres. rjfJLai, rjo-ai, r)Tai, etc. 3 plur. rjvrai. 
Impf. 757x771/, rjcro, t/oto, etc. 3 plur. tjvto. 
Imper. rja-o, rj<r0co, etc. Infin. fjo-Sai. Part, rjfiwos. 

Also, 

Pres. Ka&i/zcu, Ka0r](rai, KaBrjTai, etc. — Subj. KaScofiai (or KaOoofiai^ 

etc.), KaOfj, Ka6rjTai, etc. 
Imp. €Ka0f)i*r]v (KaOrjiJLrjv}, €Ka6rf(ro (Ka6rjcro) i eKaSrjro or KadrjcrTO 

(Kadrjro), 3d plur. €Ka6r)VTO or KaOrjvTO. — Opt. KaOolfxr^v (/ca^- 

fjLTjv?)) KaBdio, KaBoiTo (icaOjJTO ?). 

2. There are several pure verbs (or with a pure root) which 
form the second aor. act. (and sometimes middle) by dropping 
the mode-vowel before the endings, after the analogy of verbs 
in fu ; but the remaining tenses are like verbs in co. The 
synopsis and inflection of these aorists are after the form of 
the second aor. of lorTi/xt, i. e. they retain the long vowel of the 
indie, whatever it is, etc. (See § 38, Rem. 1 and 3.) 

3. A few pure verbs in the Attic dialect (chiefly in poetry), 
in imitation of the Epic dialect, drop the connecting vowel 
before the endings (except in the third person plur.) in the 
perf. and pluperf. act., and thus form these tenses after the 
analogy of verbs in \ii. They are called second perfects and 
pluperfects, or syncopated perfects and pluperfects. The sin- 
gular of the indie, is not used except in behia. Thus we have 

(ecrraa), €<ttoltov, eo-Tafiev, €(ttclt€, ecrracri (for eoraacri) ; subj. eorco, 
77?, etc. ; imper. t&radi ; infin. iardpai ; part. eVrcoy. 

Rem. 1. The verbs which have this form of the perf. in some of 
its parts, more or less frequently, in the Attic dialect, are ylyvofiat 
(yeyaa), (BaLvoo (/3e/3aa), 6vf]<TKa> (redvaa), T€T\r)Ka (T€T\aa)> y3t/3pa)- 
(TKOi (/3e/3pa)s, part.), ttltvtco (7Tf7rra)s, part.). 

Rem. 2. In the part, the characteristic vowels a and e are regu- 
larly contracted with the ending- cos in the Attic dialect, acta, ecos into 
cos. In this case they generally retain the a> in the endings in all 

* KaOrjfAai is generally used in prose. 



§39.] 



VERBS IN fu. 



107 



cases and genders ; as, corrects, eorcScra, terra)?, G. iarcoros, coroxn;?, etc. 
But when uncontracted, they sometimes retain this form in the masc. 
and fem., and sometimes are declined like the regular perf. participles 
in cos*. 

4. An old perfect (second perfect) of the obsolete etSo 
(video, I see), olba (I know, i. e. have seen), follows the anal- 
ogy of verbs in /zt, and is thus inflected in the perf. and 
pluperf. : — 

Perfect. 

D. P. tcr/xev (otbafiev, I. toftev) 

Xotov tare (oidare) 

larov laden (otbdert) 

Subj. S. clbv (Epic elbeco), dbfjs, elbjj, D. elbqrov, P. cido/iey (eioV 

fiev Epic), eldrJTe, elbaxri. 
Opt. S. elbelrju, elbclrjs, elbclrj, D. clbelrjTov, clbeirjTrjU^ P. elbelrjfiev^ 
elbeirjre, elbeirjerav Of elbeUv. 



Ind. S. otba 

olada (olbas) 
otbe 



Imp. S. 



'IctBl 



D. 



tOTG) 



iorov 



"OTGOU 



P. tare 



lOToacrav 



Inf. elbtveu (tbficvcu, Ibfiev, Ibefiev). 
Part, clbas, via (Ibvia Ep.), 6s, G. otos* 



S. ybeiv, fjbr] D. 

jjbeis, rjbeicrtia or 

jjbei, ffbr), ybeiv 
Or (Epic and Ionic) : - 



Pluperfect. 

jjbciTOV, JJ(TTOV 
flbeiTTjV, ffornv 



P. fjbciyLev, rja-yxv 
jjbeire, rjare 

jjbe&av, jjcra¥ 



S. 1. Ijbca (Ion.), rjelbeiv (Ep.) 

2. qeidets or rjclb^s (Epic) 

3. #§€* or el'&re (Ion.), qei'Sa or qei&7 (Ep.) 
P. 2. fl'Seare (Ionic) 

3. taav (Epic). 
Fut. Act. clbrjcrco (Ionic). Middle cio-o/wh, J shall know. 



108 ANOMALOUS VERBS. [§ 40. 

SECTION III. 

ANOMALOUS VERBS. 

§ 40. Anomalies in Meaning. 

1. "Where the future middle of a verb has a passive mean- 
ing. 

Rem. 1. This rarely occurs in liquid verbs, but in some mute 
verbs, and often in pure verbs. Thus are used, regularly, the futures 
TLfiTjcrofiaL, dbiKfjo-ofiai, olKTjcrojicu ; while some vary between the fut. 
mid. and fut. pass.; as, (^/xiooo, cocfieXeco, orepea), <^)o/3ea>; ap^co, rp€(pco, 
ay co, etpyco, rpi/So), j3Xa7rra), rapacrca), (pvXdacrco , etc. 

2. Where active verbs have their future in the middle 
form, but with an active sense, verbs of this class express 
mostly some bodily or mental operation, and have, many of 
them, an active fut., but not generally in good authors. 

Rem. 2. There belong here, of regular active verbs, the following 
futures : dKovcropai, d7ravrr](TopLaL, dTvoXavcropxii, fiadiovfiai, dXaXd^op.aL, 
/Sorjcro/xat, yeXdcrofiai, iyj/rjaofiai, KcoKvcrofiai, oi/Aa>£opcu, oXoXv^ofMai, 
ovptjcrofAai, irqhr)(iop.ai, criy^cropcu, cncQ7rr)<7op.ai, (T7rovbdcro[Aai, av pi £opat, 
TooSdcrofiat,. Also the following irregular verbs have the future mid- 
dle in an active sense, almost without an exception: dfiaprcwco , /3cuVa>, 
ylyvopai, yiyvcocTKco, daKvco, didpdcTKco, 6eco, Siyydvco, 6vt](Tkco, Kapvco, 
kXcuo), Xayxdvco, Xap/3ava), fiavOdvco, veco (swim), opa/vpu, 6paa>, naifa, 
7ra(r^a), ttltvtco, 7rXeco, Trveco, peco, rpe^oo, rpcoyco, (fievyco, \dcrK<o, X^C 00 * 

Rem. 3. The following vary between the active and middle future, 
and yet more commonly use the latter : ci'Sco, dpTrdfa , yr/pdo-Kco , /3Xe7ra), 
Sicokoj, iyKcop.La£co, inaLveco, eViopKea), 6avpid£cQ, KXeTrrco, pcxfieco, a7ca>7rra), 
X cope a), /Sidco, tLktcd, and (fiddvco. 

3. Most deponent verbs have the aorist, and nearly all the 
future, in the middfe form ; but some have these tenses either 
wholly or in part in the passive form. 

Rem. 4. The following have both a middle and passive future : 
cuSeopcu, ci^SofjLaL, 6\aXeyofuii, eVtpiXeopai, 7rpo#v/xeo/xai, diavoeopju, 
eXacrcroopai. But epa/xat has only the fut. pass. €pacr6r)(Top,aL. 

Rem. 5. The following have the aorist wholly in the passive 
form : dXdofxai, d^Oofiai, fiovXofjiai) fieo/xat, TJdofiai, oto/xat, cre'/Sopcu, 
<pavrd(opa.L, diaXeyopaL, eVipeXeopcu, p.€rap.ihkop.cu, iudvfieo^aL^ irpodv- 
peop.a.L, evvoeopm, Siavoeop,ai, a7roj/oeo/xat, eVavrtoop-cu , 6uXa/3€0/xa»j 
(pt\oTLp.€opuiL, dvvafMdi, cViWa/xai . 



§ 41.] ANOMALOUS VERBS. 109 

Rem. 6. The following fluctuate between the pass, and mid. aor- 
ist : auXifo/xcu, opeyo/xai, Trpay/xareuo/xai, and (fiiXocppoveofiai. In the 
following, the middle aor. is more used than the passive : ppyxdopai, 
yiyvofiai, fiefxcpofxat, oXocpvpofiat,, tt7roXoyeo/xat , KoivoXoyeoficu', but in the 
following the middle aor. is less used than the pass. : ayapai, aldeo- 
pai, d/xtXXaoy^at, apveop-aL, and TTpQvoeop.ai. 

4. Many deponent verbs have a passive meaning. 

Rem. 7. Especially deponents which have an aorist middle often 
have, also, the passive aor. with the passive meaning ; as, dycjvLaOrjvaL, 
alici<rdrjvai, alriadrjvaL, aTroXoyrjOrjvai^ (BicurOrjvai, be^Orjvat,, dcopT]8j]vai, 
epyacrdrjvai, laOrjuai, \oyt(rdT]vaL } Xco^rjdrjvaL, p,Lp.r]6rjvaLj 7rpo<pa(rL<rdrivai 1 
•Xjpr](T6r)vai, Qjvr]6r]vai» 

Rem. 8. Also several perfects of deponent verbs have both an 
active and passive meaning ; as, ^ycovladat, yTtacrSai, ftepido-Oah Se&o- 
prjaOai, elpydcrQai, e(TK€(j>8ai, nv)(6ai (from ei^o/zcn)? rjyrjoSaL, /ceKrfj- 
<r6ai, fi€fir)XO-vricr6aL, \Lep.i\j.r)<r6ai, 7re7rpay /xareOo-^at , K€xapi(rdai % ecovrj- 
o~6ai, dnoXeXoyfjcrSaL, aTTOKGKpLcrOai, (n/XXeXoyio"#ai, aTrovcvorjaOai. 

5. The second aor. and second perf. of some transitive 
verbs are intransitive, especially the following : aorists, eSui/, 
Zo-rqP) e<fivv, €(tk\t]v ; perfects, iyp-qyopa, oXgjXo, 7re7roi#a, eaya, 
eppwya, TerrjKa^ 7r€7rvya, akvnTta, and irkfynva. 

§ 41. Anomalies' in Form, 

1. Many liquid verbs, and some mute verbs, in forming 
certain tenses, add an e to the root of the present ; as, /xcXXw 
(/xeXX- present stem), fut. ^XX^o-co (stem /zeXX*-). 

2. On the contrary, some verbs drop € of the present in 
forming the other tenses ; as, 6Wco (6W- present stem), fut. 
do£<o (8oK-). 

3. The ending ava (in a few va>, cuVg>, vvco) is added to the 
stems of a number of verbs in the pres. and imperf. The 
remaining tenses are formed partly from the pure stem, and 
partly from the pure stem strengthened by e ; as, pres. /3Xaora- 

j/a), aor. e/3Xa(7TOi/, fut. ftXao-Trjcrco. 

4. In several of the verbs of the above class, before adding 
avcDy n and cv of the pure stem are shortened into a and v, re- 
spectively, in the pres. and imperf., and v (which is often 
changed according to the laws of euphony, § 4, before the 

10 



110 ANOMALOUS VERBS. [§41, 

following consonant) is inserted before the characteristic. 
Hence we have from the roots pvd-, X77/3-, tci/^-, fiav6dpa>, Xa/x/3a- 

pcd, rvyxdvco. 

Rem. 1. In this way certain associate forms of verbs in use arose ; 
as, <j)vyyavc0 to <p€vy<o, Xifinavco to XetVo). 

5. Several stems ending in a vowel add <tkg> to the pres. 
and imperf., and some of them, at the same time, change their 
characteristic vowel (a into 77, e or o into i) ; as, dpeo-Kco (ape-), 

evpLCTKco (eupe-). 

6. Some of the verbs in <tkco (also some other verbs in ©) 
take the reduplication of verbs in pa in the pres. and imperfect; 

aS, $L$pd(TK(D (5pa"), /3t/3/3COO-Ka) (/3/3CD-), TLTpda. 

Rem. 2. Some of the verbs in o-kco have an independent meaning, 
some a causative, and some an inceptive or inchoative meaning ; as, 
§ibpd(TK.G>, to run away, pedvcrKco, to make drunk, yrjpdcrKco, to become 
old, etc. 

7. Certain tenses from obsolete presents are associated, 
simply on account of the correspondence of their meaning, 
with presents in use of quite different stems. Thus the forms 
oyfsopai, axpdrjv, clbov, from the stems 07r- and Id-, are associated 
with the pres. 6pd<o, and serve as tenses to it ; just as in Eng- 
lish we associate together go, went, gone, though from differ- 
ent roots. 

8. A number of the verbs in ^t add pvfu to the stem, when 
it ends in a consonant, vwpi, when it ends in a vowel ; as, 
aywpi, oXAu/u (i. e. o\wfii, v being assimilated to X for eu- 
phony). 

9. Less common are some other anomalies, such as meta- 
thesis, by which a vowel changes places with a following 
liquid in certain tenses, and is lengthened in the change ; and 
syncope, by which a short vowel (generally e) is rejected in 
some tenses or forms of the verb. 

Rem. 3. Metathesis takes place in the perf. and first aor. pass, of 
the verbs /3dXXco, KaXeco, Kapvco, repvco, and Qvtjo-kcd, and the stems 
0aX, *aX, *a/x, re/x, 6av, become in these tenses /3X?;, k\tj, Kpn, r^n, 
6vr) ; hence, $€-fi\ri-Ka, e-ickfj-Orjv, etc. 



§41.] 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 



Ill 



Rem. 4. Syncope occurs : a) Especially in several second aorists, 
and rejects e ; as, rjypuprjv (from cycipco, iyep-, hence regularly rjyepo- 
firjv), rjveyKov (eW-, hence regularly, with the reduplication, § 31, 
R. 3, rjv€V€Kov), €ttt6p.tjv and fut. TTTTjcrofiai from Trkropai. b) In connec- 
tion with the reduplication (see paragraph 6) ; as, ylyvopai (yei>-, and 
hence properly yi-ysv-opai), iriirna (7rer-), pip.™ from pevco, TTLnpacrKco 
from 7T€pd(o ; also in the perfects nkirTcoKa (nero-) and izkitrapai from 
Treravwpi. c) In ot/xat, Sprjv (for olojiai, co6pr]v) the connecting vowel 
is rejected by syncope, as is done generally in verbs in /xt. 

10. The following alphabetical list contains most of the 
anomalous verbs of the above classes in use in the best Attic 
writers. It has not seemed best to encumber the list with 
those of less common occurrence, or belonging to the dialects, 
nor with mere defective verbs, all of which may be better 
learned from the Lexicon, as they occur. Mere irregularities 
in the formation of particular tenses will be found treated of 
under the sections devoted to that subject. 



Present. 



Future. 



Aorist. 



Perfect, 



ayuvpi (break) 


Zfr 


ea£a 


eaya 


Passive 




idyrjv 


( J €ayp,ai) 


alp€(o (take eX-) 


alprja'co 


el\ov 


rjprjKa 




alpedijaopac 


rjpeSrjv 


r\pr)p.ai 


alcrOdvopai (perceive) 


al(r6r}(Top.ai 


rj(r66p.T]v 


rjoSrjpai 


dXe|a) (ward off) 


(d\ €^T)(T(o) 


(rjX^cra) 




Middle 


d\€£r)(rop,<u 


T]\€£dp.7)V 




akio-Kopai (be taken) 


aXoaa'op.aL 


idXoov, rjXcov 


idXaica, 7J\<oKa 


dpaprduco (err) 


dp.apTr\(jQpai 


rjpapTov 


T}p.dpTTJKa 


Passive 




ap,apTT]6rjvai 


Tjp.dprrjp.at, 


dpPXio-Kc* (miscarry) 


(dpISXaKrco) 


rJpftXcoo-a 


TJp,p\a>Ka 


dp,<f>i€vwpi (clothe) 


dp(pioo 


rjfMpiecra 




Middle 


dp.(pl€<TOpLCU 




7]p.<j)ie(rp,ai 


dvakivKa (spend) 


dvaXaxra) 


dvdXcocra 


dvaXcoKd 






dprfkaxfa 


dvrjkcoKa 


Passive 


dva\<odf)(rop.aL dvaXatdrjv 


dvak(Dp.ai 






dwfk&drju 


dvfj\(opLai 


dwxOdvopm (be hated) 


d7r€X^V <ro H' ai 


diTrjx06p,r)v 


dirqx6r)pm 



112 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 



R41. 



dpeo-Kco (please) 


dpecro) 


rjpeo-a 


(dprjpeKa) 


av£(dv)a> (increase) 


av£r]<T<0 


r)v£r](ra 


T)V^T)Ka 


Passive 


av^r](6r])(Topai 


7)v£f)6r]V 


rjv^TjfiaL 


axGofiai (be vexed) 


dx6€(r(6f]cr)op.ai r\y&£(r6r]V 


P 


/3atVo> (go) 


firjo-onai 


?f*V> 


j3ei3r]Ka 


/3t/3pa)crKa) (to eat) 


(Ppaxropat.) 


(e/3pa>cra) 


/3e/3pa>Ka 


Passive 


(ftp<08r)(Top,cu) 


iPp6)6r]U 


fUeftpcDfiai 


/SXao-Tavto (spring) 


/3Xao"r^cra) 


eftXacTTov 


((3)€(3XdoTT]Ka 


/3Aa)<TKa) (come) 


jjloXov/acu 


efioXov 


p.€p.(3X(DKa 






(efiXcov) 


fiefiXaxa 


fBoo-Kco (feed) 


j3o(TKr)<T(i) 








PovXofiai (will) 


jSouAqcro/icK 


efiovXrjOrjv 


PcfiovXrjfjLai 


ya/xea> (marry) 


ya/xw 


eyrjfxa 


yeydfxijKa 


Middle 


yapovfiai 


eyr]fidp.Tjv 


y€ydp.T]p,ai 


yrjpd{(TK)(i> (become old) yrjpdo-Ofiai (era) 


) eyrjpacra 


yeyrjpaKa 


yiyvopai (ylvofxai) (be~ 


y€vr)(TOfiai 


lyevop.7]v 


ytytvqpiai 


[come) 


yevTjSfjaojjLai 




yeyova 


yiyvaxTKco (know) 


yvdxrop,at 


cyvcov 


eyvooKa 


Passive 


yvcocrdrjcropai 


lyvw(r6t]v 


Zyvcoo-fiai 


duKvco (bite) 


drjtjofjLai 


edaKov 


? 


Passive 


hrjxBrj(Top,ai 


idrj)(Br]v 


dedrjyp,cu 


hapOavco (sleep) 


dap6r)crop.ai(?) 


edapdov 


deddpSrjKa 


dtdpdo-KcD (run off) 


dpdo-opai 


edpau 


dedp&Ka 


doKeco (srem) 


do£co 


edoija 


dedoyp,cu 


(i)6t\a> (will) 


(e^eXiycra) 


T)6eXr](Ta 


r)6eXr]Ka 


etVe«/ (say €p-) 


epa> 


tlnov (-ira) 


€?pT]Ka, 


Passive 


pr)6r)(TOiiai 
elp^crofiai 


epprjOrjv 


€tpT)p.ai 


eXavvco (drive) 


eXcS 


^Xacra 


iXqXaKa 


Passive 




rjXdBrjv 


iXqXafuu 


Middle 




r)Xa<rdp.t]v 




(t'popai) (ask) 


ipfjcropai 


rjpdfirjv 





W® (g°f orth ) 


€pf>T)(T(D 


TJpprjcra 


fjppr)Ka 


epxop.cu (go iXevO-) 


eXevcro/xat 


rjXOov 


iXrjXvBa 


id6l(x> (eat €§-, (f>ay) 


iidofjLCH, 


€<payov 


ibrfboKa 


Passive 




(r)d€(r&r}v) 


tSijfco'iiai 



§41.] 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 



113 



€v8(o (sleep) 


€vdrjO'(0 







€vpl(TK(o (Jind) 


evprjo'co 


evpov 


€VpT]Ka 


Passive 


€vp€6fjO"opac 


€Vp€0T]V 


evpTjpai 


e^o) {have o"x*, o"X €m ) 


e^cDy o-xw® 


€O-\0V 


eoxP& 


Passive 




(i(TX€0T)v) 


eo-xw™ 


Middle 


e£'o/xai, o-\Wop.ai iaxoprju 




fya> (cook) 


€yJA7]crop.ai 


rj-^-qcra 


? 


Passive 




T)^T)6r)V 


rjyjfrjpai 


£evywpi (join) 


£ev£a> 


e£ev£a 


P 


Passive 




i£vyr)V (i^vx^rp 


') efcvypai 


Middle 


fcv^opai 


iCevgdpLrjp 




£<bwvpi (gird) 


fa) (TO) 


e£Wa 


(efaica) 


Passive 






cfao-pai 


Middle 




ifaardprjv 




7jPd((TK)oi> (become a man) fiprjarco 


TJftrjcra 


rjPrjica 


Siyydvco (touch) 


Bl^opai (-co . 


*) Wiyov 


? 


6ut)(tkco (to die) 


6avovp.ai 


%6avov 


rk6vr\Ka 


iKveoficu (come) 


l£opai 


lK6p.7}V 


iypai 


Ikdo-KOfiaL (propitiate) 


IXao'op.ai 


iXacrdprju 




Passive 




ikdo , 6r)v 


(tXao-/zai) 


Kapvco (weary) 


Kap.ovpai 


€Kapov 


K€Kp.TJKa 


Kepdvwp.1 (mix) 


K€pda"(0 (?) 


eKepda-a 


K€Kpd<a (?) 


Passive 




eKpaOrjv 


K€Kpdp,ai 






€K€pda-6rjv 


K€Kepaa-pai 


Middle 




iK€paadp,r)P 




Kopkvvuyn. (satiate) 


(/cojoeo-o)) 


cKopcara 


(iCCKOpTJKa) 


Passive 




€Kopea-6rjv 


KCK0p€O-p.ai 


Kpip.ap.ai (hang) 


Kp€fXT]CrO}JLai 




• 


Kp*p.dvwp.i (hang) 


Kpepco 


iicpcp.ao'a 


? 


Passive 




iKpepda-Orjv 


(K€KpepLap,ai) 


Xayxdva (get by lot) 


\r}£opai 


eXaxov 


etXrjxa 


Passive 




ikrfl((hf» 


etXrjypai 


\ap$dv<o (take) 


Xrjyf/opai. 


eXaftov 


ct\r)(f)a 


Passive 


\rj(f>6t]o-op,ai 


ikrjtpOrjv 


et\r)p.pxu 


Middle 




€\a^6p.T]V 





10 



114 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 



[§41. 



\av6dvco (concealed) 


Xr/crco 


ZXaOov 


XiXrjda 


Middle 


Xf)(TOfiaL 


£Xa66prjv 


XtXrjo-pa 


fiavdavco (learn) 


fiaOfjcrofMH 


%p.a6ov 


p.ep,ddr]Ka 


pd X opai {fight) 


fjLaxovfjLcu 


ifjLcixecrdprjv 


liepdxnptu 


/xeXet (it concerns) 


fieXr](T€L 


epeXrjcrev 


pipiKrjKGV 


fieWa (intend) 


fieWrjcrcj 


e/xeXX^cra 


P 


fieXofiai (care) 


fiekrjo-ofjLcu 


ep,€\r}6r]V 


liep.iKrjp.ai, 


fieveo (remain) 


fi€Pa> 


€fJL€LVd 


p,€p.ev7]Ka 


filyuvfii, (mix) 


fU^G) 


epiga 


(p^fiixa) 


Passive 


pLLX^rjcrofiat 


Wc^i hm* 


' p.€piyp.ai 


/iLpLvrjo-Koa (remember) 


p,vf]<r<o 


cfivqcra 




Passive 


p.vrj(r6r]crop.aL 
p,€p,vr)aropxii 


lpvr\v6r\v 


p.kp.vr\pjai 


vefico (distribute) 


vep.a> 


t-veipa 


V€vep.rjKa 


Passive 




ivefjLT)6r)v 


V€veprjp.at 


o£cd (swell) 


6£rjcrco 


&&] era 


(6'SoSa) 


oXywjii, otyco (open) 


6t£(D 


e<o£a, ol£ai 


hx a 






£<0X@l p i olxQrjvai eo>y/xat 


olofiat (think) 


olrjo-opai 


cprjOrjv 





o?xofiai (depart) 


olxi) (ropai 




(«W at ) 


oXicrddva) (slip) 


oki<r6f)(r<j) (?■! 


1 coXio~6ov 


(aXlo-QriKa) 


oXXvfic (destroy) 


dXa> 


cokecra 


oX&XeKa 


Middle 


oXovpai 


Q)\6fJLT]V 


oXcoXa 


ofjLWfjLt. (swear) 


op.ovp.ac 


cofxocra 


6p.a>p.OKa 






6pLo((r)dr)vat, 


op.cop.oo'Bai 


6p.6pywpi (wipe off) 





copop^a 


? 


Passive 




tofjLOpxOrjv 


? 


Middle 


6pop£op.ai 


G)fJLOp£dp,T]V 




6pd(t> (566, 07T-, Id') 


oyjfOfjLcu 


eldov 


i&paKct 


Passive 


d(f>di]o~opuii 


a>(f)6T]v 


id) papal, cop pat 


Middle 




cldoprjv 




ocrcppalvopai (smell) 


6a(j)pr](TOfxai, 


oi(T<Pp6jir)V 


(a>o-<f>pT)p,ai) 


o^ei'Xo) (owe) 


6<f)€l\r)<T0i) 


o)(f)€i\r]ara 


co<f)€iXr}Ka 


6(f)\l.(TKdl><D (0We) 


6(j)XT]cra> 


SxpXop 
(axfiXr/o-a) 


w(f)Xr]Ka 



§41.] 



ANOMALOUS VEKBS. 



US 



7rd(rxet> {suffer irr)6- ,ir€v6-) 


ireicropLai 


tiraBov 


TTtTTOvSa 


7r€Tdvwfj.t (spread) 


7rera<70), ra> 


€7T€Ta(ra 


(7T€7T€TaKa) 


Passive 




e7T€Tdcrdr]V 


7reVra/i<u 


7T€TOficu {fly) 


7TT7)(TOfJLai 


lirr6p.r]v 


7T€7l6TTJIiat 


Passive 


7T€Tr)crofxat, 


€7TTT]V 




Middle 




€7TTdp.T]V 




7TT]yvvfiL (fasten) 





€7rr}£a 


7T€7TT]ya 


ttlvco (drink n-e-, tto-) 


iriopai 


€7TlOV 


7T€7rct)/ca 


Passive 


7rodrjo~opai 


iiroS-qv 


7re7rop.ai 


7Ti7rpd<rK<D (sell) 






- 






7T€1TpCLKCL 


Passive 


lT€7rpd(TOfjLai 


Zirpa6r)v 


7r€7rpap,ai 


7TL7TTCO (fall 7T6T-, 7T€TO-) 


rrecroC/xat 


€7T€(rOV 


77€7TT(OKa 


7rvv6duofxat, (ask) 


ircvcropai 


€7Tv86flT]V 


TreTTVcrp-ai. 


f)€CQ (fl0W) 


pyrjaofiaL 


» » « / 

eppvrjv 


i » f / 

eppvrjKa 




peiHrofiai 


eppevcra 




prjyuvfjLi (tear) 


ph& 


cppriga 


J/ 5 t 

eppcoya 


Passive 


payrjaojicu 


ippdyrju 




Middle 




ipprj^dfxrju 




pLTTTecO, piTTTCO (kltrl) 


pt^o> 


eppiya 


€ppi<pa 


Passive 




eppi(t)(0)T}v 


tppLflfJLCU 


p<avwfju (strengthen) 


pd)cr<o 





? 


Passive 


pGMrOrjcroiiai 


»» e § a 

€pp<0o~ur)V 


€ppcop,ai 


o-phwpi (quench) 


o-/3ecra) 


€<rfi€<ra 






Passive 


(T^ecrOfjcrofxaL 


iar^€cr6i]V 


ecr/3ecr/xat 


Intransitive 


o-ftfjo-OfJLai 


ecrfirjv 


eo-firjKa 


cKeSdvwpi (scatter) 


(TKtScb 


ea-KeOao-a 






Passive 




l(TK.ebd(r6r)u 


icTKedaa-fJiat 


o-kottcco (consider) 


(TKe\lrofxai 


iarKi(j)6r]v 


€(TK€fJifACU 


<T7T€v8co (offer a libation) 


o"7relo"a> 


€0-7T6L(ra 


(coireiKa) 

€0"IT€L(rpMl 


oTopevwfjLi (spread) 


cropo) 


eoropccra 






(See oTp&vwpi.) 




(eo~Topkcr6r]v) 


eVropecr/zai 


orpd)vwp.L (spread) 


orpaxrcD 


€O~TpC0O~a 


— — 


Passive 




l(TTptt>6r)V 


caTpcofxai 


Middle 




€(TTp(oadp.rjv 





116 



ANOMALOUS VERBS. 



[$41. 



T€}JLVCO (CUtj 


T€jJL<0 


€T€fJLOV 


TeTfirjKa 


Passive 


T€Tp,TJo-OfJLai 


lrp.r\6j]V 


TeTfirjfiai 


tivco {pay) 


rta-d) 


ertcra, riaai 


T€TlKO, 


Passive 




IrlcrS-qv 


T€TL(TfJLai 


Middle 




iriadfirju 




TLTpOXTKO) (W0Und) 


Tpdxrco 


erpcoo-a 


— ? 


Passive 


rpcoBrjo-ofiat, 


irpooOrjv 


rerpcofxai. 


rpe^w (run bpafi') 


dpap.ovfj,ai 


edpafiov 


dedpdfirjKa 


Passive 






^ebpap-rjaBai 


Tvyxavc* (happen) 


T€v£op,ai 


trvxov 


rervx^JKa 


tv7ttg> (strike) 


TV7rrr)(ra) 


(jETVTTOv) 




Passive 


TVTTTT](TO\iai 


irV7TT]V 


rerufifxaL 


<\>ep<d (hear eVeK-, oi-) 


ota-Q) 


rjveyKov 


ivrfvoxo- 


Passive 


iv€xOrj(rop,ai 
ol(r6q(rop,ai 


rjvex^rjv 


3 , 
€VT)veypai 


Middle 


otaofiai 


T)V€yKa.fJLTJV 




<f>0dva> (anticipate) 


cj)6^(rofiat 


€(p6a(ra, €(f)$T]v e<p$aKa 


xaipa (rejoice) 


Xcuprjo-co 


exdprjv 


K€xdp7]Ka(-fiai) 


Xp&vwfxi (to color) 




expcocra 


? 






Passive 




€XpG>0-67]V 


Kexpaxrfiai 


aOeco (push) 


axrco (&df)o-(0 


) eaxra 


(eoaica) 


Passive 


&cr6f}(T0fj,cu 


iao-Brjv 


eoxr/iai 


Middle 


coo-o/iai 


icocrdfXTjv. 





\) 42.] UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. 117 

CHAPTER IV. 

UNINFLECTED WOEDS, OR PARTICLES. 
§ 42. Adverbs. 

1. Adverbs express the relations of 'place (as, navTayf), 
everywhere), time (as, wWcop, by night), manner (as, ovtgx, 
thus), modality {affirmation, negation, certainty, uncertainty, 
conditionally, etc. ; as, vai, yes, ov, not, \ir\v, truly , nov, 
doubtless , to-coy, perhaps, and the like), and intensity and 
frequency (as, fidXa, iraw, much, avdis, again, and the like). 

2. Besides the ending as, in which adverbs derived from 
nouns and participles (see § 21, 1) end, there are other 
endings of adverbs, most of them arising from the endings 
of the different cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, as 
the genitive, dative, and accusative. 

3. The genitive ending appears in adverbs ending in -tjs and 
-ou ; as, i£rjs, €7rnro\fjs, ttov, Sfiov, dy%ov, ovBafiov. Also in -off of 
the third declension ; as, ^poinds (from irpoi£), and probably 
ivTos {within) and Utos {without). Also those in £ were 
probably derived from old genitives in -a/cos by dropping o 
and combining < and s ; as, 7rv£ {with the fist), Xd£, dXXd^ 
fiovvd£, etc. 

4. The dative ending appears in adverbs ending in t, et, ©, 
oi, at {rja-c, acri), tj or a (the iota having been lost), and € ; as, 
rjpi {early), iicovTi, eyepri, ay^t, "P rt 5 TrafwrXiy&t, avToyjsei, d/zeXct, 
atet Or det, e/cet ; Karoo, efco, o{/7rco ; fU>X *> °*i on"oi> oLkoi, 'icrdfiol 
{at the Isthmus), UvBol; ndXai, x ^* 'A^wja-i (a£ Athens), 
Bvpavi {at the door) ; C1XX77, TrcffJ, Xdtfpa, eV#a, ivravBa, 'iireira ; 
r^Xe, ctye, etc. 

5. The accusative ending appears in adverbs ending in -oj/, 
-i\v -ov, -a (sing., or plur. neut.) ; as, drjpov, irkr^a-lov, irKt,v6r)b6v ; 
irpQni)V, fjuiicpdv ; Hai/a^Sd, rd^a, (rd(f)a, Kpv<pa, iva, etc. 

Rem. 1. The neuter sing, or plur. of many adjectives in use as 
such is often used adverbially ; as, 7roXu or noWd (much), \x6vov 
{only), etc. 



118 UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. [§ 43. 

Rem. 2. The three endings of adverbs, -6ev, -0i, and -be (-ere), 
correspond, respectively, to the gen., dat., and ace. endings, denoting 
whence, where, and whither, as, ovpavoOev {from heaven), ovpavoOi 
(in heaven), ovpavovbe (to heaven), dXkocre (to another place) . 

§ 43. Prepositions. 

1. The prepositions are used partly with the oblique cases 
of nouns and pronouns, which they generally stand before, 
and partly in composition. 

Rem. 1. Only 7rp6s, in the expressions npbs be and km irpos (but 
besides, and besides), is found without a case to govern in Attic prose. 

Rem. 2. The improper prepositions dvev, eveita, axph ^XPh never 

appear in composition. 

2. The cases which stand with the different prepositions 
are : a) The genitive alone with npo, before, a7r6,fro?n, ig (ex), 
oat of, out, dvri, instead of, avev, icithout, evena or elvena (gener- 
ally placed after its case), on account of, &xpi and pexPh until, 
and some other words, such as x^P LV ^ §' lK l v (ace. of nouns), 
having the force of prepositions, h) The dative alone with lv, 
in, o-uv (!;vv), icith. c) The accusative alone with eh (is, and 
sometimes as before designations of persons), into, to, dvd, on, 
in, upon, d) The genitive and accusative with bid, Kara, rarcp, 
fierd. e) The genitive, dative, and accusative with irapd, d^l, 

irepi, 7Tp6s, V7ro, im. 

Rem. 3. The principal meanings of the prepositions which gov- 
ern two cases are : — 

1) bid with the gen. through ; with the ace. through, on account of, 
by means of, through the efficiency or fault of. 

2) Kara with the gen. down from, against, on account of, concern- 
ing ; with the^acc. by, in, upon, to, according to, by virtue of, in re- 
spect to; of time, about ; also, the way and maimer. 

3) V77€p with the gen. above, over, for, instead of, on account of ; with 
the ace. over, above, of space, time, measure, and number. 

4) fierd with the gen. with; with the ace. after. 

Rem. 4. The principal meanings of the prepositions which govern 
three cases are : — 

1) d ii(f) l with the gen. and dat. around, about, on account of; with 
the ace. about, of place and time. 

2) ire pi with the gen. concerning, on account of; with thfcdat. and 
ace. about, in respect to. 



§ 44.] UNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. 119 

3) irapd with the gen. from by, from near by; with the dat at, by; 
with the ace. to, near. 

4) 7rp6s with the gen. from before (7rpos tieSv, by, before the gods) ; 
with the dat. by; with the ace. to, against, according to, for the 
benefit of 

5) im with the gen. upon, at, on, by, after, under, during, for; 
with the dat. upon, on, at, by, after, concerning, on account of, from, in 
order to, under condition that, in the power of; with the ace. upon, 
against, after. 

6) vno with the gen. under, by, from, on account of; with the dat. 
under, by ; with the ace. under, during. 

Rem. 5. In composition, the prepositions usually have some one 
of their primitive local meanings ; as, — 

1) iv, in, within, by: <?yy eios, ivoucclv, ipp.ev€iv. 

2) o~vv, with, together : o-vpiTopeveo-Oai, o~u\\£y€iv. [arravat,. 

3) fiera, with (participation), around: /xere^eti/, nerahihovai, /x€#i- 

4) ami, against, instead of: avrtkeyeiv, dirnSMvai. 

5) 7rpo, before : irpoTarreiv, Trpofiaiveiv, irpoaiptivBai. 

6) onto, from, away: aTrotiOeo-Oai, dirkp-^o'dai. 

7) i£, out : i%€pxzo~6ai, iKJSdXkeu/. 

8) els, into : clo-ep^a-dai. 

9) ava, up, through, back : avafiaiveiv , avayaptiv . 

10) Kara, down through, completely : KarafiaLveiv, KarainpLTrpavat. 

11) hid, through, over: §i€pxeo-6ai, SiaftaLveiv. 

12) V7r€p, over: V7repj3aiv€iv, virepao^os, vnepopav. 

13) dp<fii, around, two-sided : dp,<picrTopos. 

14) rrepi, around, over : TT€pi€px*crdai, 7repixapf}s, 7T€piopav. 

15) Trapd, to, near by, along by : irapfwai, TrapaKaXelv, irapaifkziv. 

16) 7rpos, towards, to: irpoo-kpxevOai, irpoo-TiQkvai. 

17) in I, upon, against, after : iiririOkvai, imkvai, iiriTaTT^iv. 

18) V7TO, under, slightly: viroytios, wo^oopeti/. 

§ 44. Conjunctions. 
Conjunctions are of two classes : — 

I. Coordinate conjunctions, or such as connect sentences 
(or words, when the sentences are abridged) that merely have 
a common reference to each other, while each expresses a 
complete sense by itself. These are : — 

1. Copulative conjunctions ; as, <ai, and, also, re, and (the 
former implying a more intimate connection, the latter a looser 
connection, or a mere succession, without any internal connec- 
tion) ; re . . . . re, both .... and, on the one hand . . . . on the 



120 TJNINFLECTED WORDS, OR PARTICLES. [§ 44. 

other , re Kal (written together), both .... and, Kal .... Kal, Z>o^ 
• • • • and also. 

2. Adversative conjunctions ; as, U, £w£ (to which the con- 
cessive fiev often corresponds in the related sentence), pevroi, 
yet, drdp, but, still, dXkd, but on the contrary, but, yet, while, 
kclLtoi, and yet, Kalnep, although (with a part.), opcos, neverthe- 
less, av (after Kal or de), and on the contrary, on the other 
hand, again. 

3. Disjunctive conjunctions ; as, fj, or (aut, vel, ve, sive), 
fj . . . . fj, either .... or, eire .... ei're (with the indie.) or eai/re 

(rjvre) .... idvre (fjvri) with the subj., whether . . . .or, ovre .... 

ovVe and fjLTjre .... fjLrjre (occasionally with the simple re or Kal in 

the second member), neither .... nor, oide and /iqSe, nor also, 

and not, also not, even not, not at all. 

Rem. 1. The conjunction fj (than) is also used with comparative 
words, and those denoting separation, difference. 

4. Causal conjunctions ; as, ydp,for,for example. 

5. Deductive conjunctions ; as, olv, consequently, therefore, 
apa, then, Tolvvv, then, SO then, rolyap (roiyaproL, roiyapovv), for 

that very reason, wherefore ; also df) (now, hence) is deduc- 
tive. 

II. Subordinate conjunctions, or such as connect a subordi- 
nate to a principal sentence. They are : — 

1. Causal conjunctions ; as, on, Bloti, as (also the temporal 
conjunctions ore, ottotc, eW, and eVeiS^ used causally), because, 
since, when, while ; also are with a participle. But with verba 
sentiendi et declarandi, on and a>s introduce objective substan- 
tive sentences, and are explicative in their character. 

2. Hypothetical or conditional conjunctions ; as, et, if; also 
the temporal conjunctions eVei and eVet^, after that, as, irplv, 
before, care, ecos, axP 1 * an< ^ ^XPh till, until, so long as, gener- 
ally have a hypothetical force. 

3. Final conjunctions (expressing an end or purpose) ; as, 
iva, cos, o7T(os, that, in order that ; ntf, Iva pJ\, a>s p.i], ott<*>s pr), 
that not, in order that not. 



§ 45.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 121 

4. Consecutive conjunctions (denoting a sequence or succes- 
sion) ; as, cos and wore, so that. 

5. Comparative conjunctions ; as, ws and coo-irep, as. 

Rem. 2. Adverbs of place and time, also, are used to connect sen- 
tences, and hence fill the office of conjunctions ; as, ov, rj, ha, evQa, 
61, and other relative adverbs of place (see the correlative adverbs, 
§ 27, II.); ore, Snore, cos, f)viK.a, when, iv op, ecos, while, eVet, cTreidr), 
after that, core, pexpi, and a^/at, ft7/, urcfo'Z, also ef , a7ro, and ei? with 
the case of a relative or correlative pronoun, which express time. 
Besides, relatives and direct interrpgatives (see the correlatives, § 27, 1.) 
serve to connect sentences with others, forming what are called rela- 
tive or adjective sentences. 

Note. Interjections are mere articulate sounds expressive of emo- 
tion; as, a, ah! <pev, alas! oval, woe! otfioi, woe is me! €vye,well 
done !. etc. They have no grammatical relations, and hence require 
no treatment. 



CHAPTER V. 

FORMATION OF WORDS. 

§ 45. Formation by Derivation. 

1. Verbs are derived from roots (whether found in nouns, 
adjectives, verbs, or other parts of speech) by adding the end- 
ings (and sometimes with some change in the root) aw, ea>, og>, 
cvco, a£co, i£co, alvco, and vvco. 

2. These endings have more or less distinct meanings. 
Especially, those in oca, alvco, and vvco generally have a causa- 
tive meaning (as, XevKalveiv, to whiten, make white) ; and those 
in aeico and tdco express a desire or longing for something 
(desideratives) ; as, noXefino-elco, I desire to fight. 

3. Nouns denoting persons (personal appellatives) are de- 
rived from verbal roots by the endings as, ns, rns ; os ; np, cop, 
svs ; as, o-TpaTvyos, a general, prjroop, an orator, etc. 

4. Abstract and other common nouns which are not personal 
appellatives, are derived from verbal stems by the endings a, 

11 



122 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 45. 

eia, aia, rj, fir) ; os, fios ; cris, fxa ; US, /3Xa,3/?, injury, 7roi7jfia 9 a 
poem, deo-pos, bond, etc. 

5. Nouns are derived from adjectives by the endings a or 77, 

ta, eta, oca, os, rrjs, crvprj ; as, 6€ppr) (from Beppos), evdaip,oi>la 
(evdatpcov) , ra)(VTT]s (rcr^j), etc. 

6. Nouns are derived from other nouns by various endings. 
Of these may be noticed : - — 

1) Patronymics, i. e. names of persons derived from then- 
parents or ancestors. They end in db^s (from names of the 
first declension only) and ibrjs (which becomes cidqs or oldrjs 
when the stem of the primitive ends in e or o) ; and the corre- 
sponding feminine endings as (gen. ados), Is (gen. [80s); as, 
'AXcvadrjs (from 'AAeuas), AlaKiftrjs (AlaKos), Urjkeldrjs (ilijXevs) ; 
Bopeds (Bopeas), TauraXts (TavraXos), etc. 

Rem. 1. There are also the rare and poetic patronymic endings 
[av (masc.) and ivq or idovq (fern.) ; as, Kpovicov {Kp6vos)^AKpicricovrj 
('AKplaios). 

2) Gentile nouns, i. e. nouns denoting one's country. They 

end 111 lttjs, drqs, r]rr]S, oorrjs \ tos, auos, and evs ; as, 'AftdrjpLTTjs 

(a person belonging to Abdera), 'HTTeipcor^s- {belonging to 
Epirus), 'AOrjvalos, etc. 

3) Diminutives. — These receive the endings aw, iov, Ihiov, 
dpiov, vhpiov, lo-kov, urKq, is, and denote a small or dear object 
of the kind denoted by the primitive ; as, oIkISlov (a little 
house, from out/a), ttoXlxviov (ttoKls), etc. 

7. Adjectives are derived from the different parts of speech 
by the endings os, eos, 10s (as 7os, aios, elos, 010s, <pos), ikos, taicos, 

VOS, TOS, T€OS, LflOS, UVOS, TJVOS, LVOS (ivOS, XvOS, IVQS, €LUOs), X6s (aS 

r)X6s, (o\6s), aXeos, pos (as epos, rjpos) ; eis (as rjets, oeis), rjs, 
codrjs, and ficou. 

8. Of the above adjective endings, those in eos denote the 
material of which any thing is made ; as, xpvo-eos, of gold ; 
and those in ei? (rjeis, 6as) and abrjs generally denote fulness, 
though vdrjs sometimes denotes likeness ; as, vXrjeis (abounding 
with wood), dveficobrjs (windy) ; but ywaiKcobrjs, woman-like, 






§ 46.] FORMATION OF WORDS. 123 

§ 46. Formation by Composition. 

1. When the first word of a compound is an indeclinable 
word, it is not changed, except that most dissyllabic preposi- 
tions ending in a short vowel lose that vowel before a vowel in 
the following word (but not 7repl, and sometimes d/x<£i and 7rp6j ; 
as, deikoyta, a7ro/3a\Xc«> ; 7re/He;(G>, 7rpov%co (crasis), and 7rpoe£co (no 
crasis on account of the aspirate). 

Rem. 1. Here belong the inseparable particles a-, or av- before a 
vowel (denoting negation or privation, like the English in-, un-, or 
-less, but sometimes having a collective sense, together, as in anas, ako- 
Xos, and then evidently a contraction from dpa, or intensive, as in 
drei/rjs, very tight), 8vs, -vtj (English mis- or un-), and apt-, cpi-, da-, 
(a-, Xa- {very, much, all intensive) ; as, ept/3a>Xa£, very fertile, etc. 

2. When the first word of a compound is a noun, the sec- 
ond word, when it begins with a vowel, is generally joined 
directly to the stem of the first, but sometimes to the nomina- 
tive after rejecting s (especially when s follows v) ; but when 
the stem of the first ends, and that of the second begins, with a 
consonant, o (and sometimes *) is introduced between them ; 
as, dvhpayaOia (i. e. dvbp-ayadla), dcrTvyeiTcdV (aoru-yetVo)^) ; <£Xe/3o- 
rop.fiv ((£Xe/3-o-T<tyieIz/). 

Rem. 2. The o is sometimes introduced, also, when only the first 
ends in a vowel, or the second begins with a vowel (as, povoetdfjs) ; 
sometimes, too, co is used for o, and sometimes, especially in the early 
forms of the language, a, rj, i, et, ot, <r, cri are introduced as connect- 
ing syllables ; as, odoLnopos, reXeacjyopos, etc. 

3. When the first word of a compound is a verb (which is 
not very often the case in the common language), the second 
word, when it begins with a vowel, is generally joined directly 
to the pure stem of the verb when it ends in a consonant, but 
inserts <r when it ends in a vowel, and sometimes, also, when 
it ends in a pi- or kappa-mute (as, neiQapyfiv, iravo-dvep.os, 7rXq- 
gnnros). On the contrary, when the second word begins with 
a consonant, a-i is inserted between the parts, when the first 
ends in a vowel or p, and sometimes when it ends in a pi- or 
kappa-mute, but in other cases, e, o, or t : as, Xvo-lnopos, orpe- 

\j/t$iKos ; XeinoTatjla, dpxi0€(>»pos, etc. 



124 FORMATION OF WORDS. [§ 46. 

4. When the second word begins with a short vowel, this is 
lengthened in several compound nouns, viz. a and e into 77, and 

o into co ; as, o-Tparrjyos (aya>), avr]K€(TTOs (aKeo/iat), vtttjKOOS, ^€PTj~ 
Xao-ia, Tpiozfiokov (ofiokos), v7roop€ia, crvvoofioros, 

5. The second word generally remains unchanged at the 
end when it is a verb and the first word a proper preposition ; 
as, eKfidWeiv, ai>a/3atWt*>, etc. 

6. Many verbal substantives, also, especially abstracts, re- 
main unchanged when compounded with a preposition ; also 
ftovXrj, diKr], (TKevri, and o&fc ; as, i^o7r\iO-la t etc. 

7. Adjectives, also, may remain unchanged, whatever be 
the first part of the compound ; as, ivdrjXos, airioros, dvcrdpeoros, 
TjfiUaKos, 7rdyKa\os, <j)L\6(ro(j)os. 

8. With the exception of the three last-named cases, com- 
pounds are usually changed at the end by receiving a deriva- 
tive ending, either nominal or verbal, according as a noun or 
a verb is to be formed from the compound stem ; as, iWo- 
rp6(jx)s, l7T7roTpo(f)La, iiTTTorpo^ielv ; vop.o$e(ria, vojxoBerelv, vop.o6eTL m 

k6s, etc. 



SYNTAX. 



Note. — The different parts of a sentence, and the different kinds 
of sentences, are supposed to be already known. See my English 
Grammar, § 38. 



CHAPTER I. 

WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ATTRIBUTE, AND 

OBJECT. 

§ 47. The Substantive or Noun. 

1. The noun is used in all the four relations of subject, 
predicate, attribute, and object. 

2. As subject, it is in the nominative case when its verb is 

in a finite tense, but in the accusative when the verb is in the 

infinitive. 

Rem. 1. The nominative sometimes stands without a verb, when 
in the progress of a sentence the structure is changed (anacoluthon) . 

3. The noun as subject is sometimes omitted, particularly 
where it is implied in the predicate (verb), or may be easily 
supplied from the context ; as, olvoxoevei (he pours out wine, 
i. e. 6 olvoxoos). So, also, 6 Kf)pv£ (the herald) and 6 o-a\7riyKTT]s 
(the trumpeter) are regularly implied in the corresponding 
verbs, and not expressed. Nouns to be supplied from the 
context are chiefly Bcos (as with 7rape';(ei,.7rpocr77/xaiWt, etc.), rjfxepa, 
wpayfia, v pay para, or a word implied in some other word in the 
connection and readily supplied by the mind. 

11* 



126 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 47. 

Rem. 2. With most impersonal verbs the accompanying infinitive 
or substantive sentence is the subject, but with those relating to cer- 
tain operations of nature (as, vei, it rains), 6e6s or Zevs may be sup- 
plied. 

4. The noun does not by itself form a complete predicate, 
but often forms a part of the predicate with the verb to be, 
and other verbs which express an incomplete predicative idea ; 
such as verbs meaning to become, grow, remain, appear, be 
named, called, appointed, chosen, regarded (as something) ; 
as, Kvpos eyevero ftacriXevs. 

5. The noun as attribute is always either in apposition (the 

same case) with another noun (sometimes with cos intervening), 

or in the genitive case, or in some oblique case governed by a 

preposition. In either case it attributes or ascribes some 

quality to a noun (like the attributive adjective) as something 

belonging to it, and not merely predicated of it ; as, ol rov 

Scvdpov KapTroi (the of-the-tree fruit, as opposed, say, to the 

fruit of the vine, or any other kind of fruit) ; Kpoto-os, 6 /3ao-t- 

Xevs (king Crcesus) ; f] npos ttjv ttoXiv 660? (the to-the~city 

way). 

Rem. 3. The noun which the attributive gen. depends upon is 
sometimes understood, especially some case of oIkos, as in the phrase 
ev or els abov (Hades), when o'Ikco or oIkov is understood. 

6. The noun as an object expresses either the direct or the 
indirect or circumstantial object of transitive verbs. As the 
indirect or circumstantial object, it is generally attended by 
a preposition ; as, eTv^rdprjv ttjv Ke(fia\f)v ; fj\6ov els tt\v 7t6\iv, 

Rem. 4. What would regularly be the subject of a subordinate 
clause is often made either the subject or object of the principal clause ; 
as, $r)\os yap poi nooXoy, on prjropiKrjv pepe\iri]Kev (Polus is evident to 
me, instead of, it is evident to me that Polus ; and so in other imper- 
sonal expressions) ; viroTTTevcre tqv Mdyov, cos ovk e'lr], k.t.X., he feared 
the Magian, that he was not, etc. (instead of, he feared that it ivas not 
the Magian , etc . ) . 

Rem. 5. The noun in the vocative case is not used in any of the 
above relations, but merely in a direct address to something, and stands 
independent in a sentence. The nominative is sometimes used in very 
much the same way, especially with the pronoun ovros (which is also 



§ 48.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 127 

used thus alone) ; as, a> ovros AiW (ho there, Ajax!). But strictly 
some form of the verb dvai, or some other verb, is to be supplied with 
such nominatives, or they are in apposition with a pronoun (either ex- 
pressed or understood) of the second person. 

7. Abstract and material nouns are sometimes used in the 
plur. to denote the different parts, kinds, exhibitions of the 
abstract or material idea (as, KpiOal, different kinds of barley, 
<j>ikiai, friendships). Proper names, also, may be used in the 
plur. either to denote several persons of the same name or of 
like qualities (as, 'Acr/cA^Tr/oat). On the contrary, the sing, of 
national denominations is often used to designate the entire 
nation ; as, 6 Uepa-rjs, the Persian. 

§ 48. The Pronoun. 

1. Pronouns, like nouns, may be used as subject, attribute, 
or object, or in the predicate, though rarely in the last relation. 

2. Pronouns, too, as attributes, generally agree with their 
noun like an adjective, and rarely express the attributive rela- 
tion when standing alone or with a preposition in an oblique 
case. 

3. The pronoun as a subject is often understood ; especially 

the indefinite rU, rives, and both the personal and possessive 

pronouns of the first, second, and third persons, which are 

regularly used only when emphatic, as in contrasts, etc. 

Rem. 1. The personal pronouns are eyo>, av, avros. Instead of 
the regular possessive pronouns Attic writers sometimes use the gen. 
of the personal pronouns (pov, crou, avrov, rjpcov, vjjlSv, vcov, avrSv) 
to express the simple possessive idea ; but the possessive idea is often 
expressed reflexively by the possessive pronoun with the addition of 
the gen. of avros, or else by the gen. of the substantive-reflexive pro- 
noun, which latter usage is the more common in the sing, and in the 
third person plural ; as, ol vperepoi nai^es (your children), 6 ipavrov 
7TaTr)p (my own father), 6 rjperepos avrcov izarr]p (our own father), etc. 

Rem. 2. The enclitic forms of the personal pronouns, p.ov, jxol, /xe, 
are less emphatic than the longer forms, the latter being regularly 
used in antitheses and other emphatic positions. 

4. As an object, the reflexive pronouns are used when the 
subject of the sentence, or else the subject or object of the 



128 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 48. 

principal sentence, is to be represented as the object of its 
own action, thought, or reference ; but the oblique cases of 
avros, or a demonstrative pronoun, are used, when this is not 
the case, or when the writer exhibits the action or thought 
rather as his own, than as that of the preceding subject or 
object ; as, 6 dvrjp airtKreivev iavrov, the man killed himself ; 
6 rvpavvos vofil&i tovs ttoXitcls v7Trjp€Te7i/ iavra (serve himself) ; 
6 avfjp aneKTeivev avTov (killed him, i. e. some other person than 
himself). 

Rem. 3. The pronoun ov, oT, e, etc. is but little used in Attic 
Greek, but when it is, it generally has the reflexive meaning, rather 
than that of a simple pronoun of the third person. The other per- 
sonal pronouns, also, (especially the enclitic forms,) sometimes have 
a reflexive sense, especially as the subject of an inhn. ,; as, oXpai /xe 
aKrjKoevai. 

5. The reflexive pronoun of the third person is sometimes 
used for those of the first and second persons, and sometimes 
for the reciprocal pronoun ; as, del f)p.as avepivdai iavrov s 
(instead of ifxavrovs) ', Ka.6* avrolv diKparels \6yxas orqcravre 
(against themselves, against each other). 

6. c O avros means the same (idem) ; without the article it 
serves as the pronoun for the third person, but often has the 
meaning of ipse (he himself). When without the article and 
connected with a noun or pronoun, it means very, self. When 
connected with eKaaros, it always precedes that word, contrary 
to our usage, which always is each for himself (not himself 
each). 

Rem. 4. From the exclusive meaning (self very) of avros, it often 
comes to mean only, alone, even, of himself, and the 'personality or 
essential totality of something, as distinguished from a part (see 
II. 1. 4). 

7. Ovtos and i<€lvos differ very much as hie and ille do in 
Latin, while ovtos differs from ode by being somewhat less 
pointedly demonstrative, and hence generally referring to 
something just said, while ode usually refers to something just 
to he said, often meaning, therefore, the following. There is 



§ 48.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 129 

the same distinction, also, between the double demonstrative 
forms through the whole list of correlative pronouns and ad- 
verbs (see the list, § 27). 

Rem. 5. The demonstratives ode and ovros may sometimes be 
translated by here, there; as, 68e .... Kpecov .... ;\;copei (here comes 
Creon). From its pointed demonstrative sense, ode sometimes refers to 
the speaker ; as, ro^ever dvdpos rovde {you shoot at this man, i. e. the 
speaker). 

Rem. 6. The neuter of a demonstrative (especially ovros) often 
refers to a word or sentence which is to follow, and sometimes to a 
sentence which precedes, as a sort of equivalent or apposition to it ; 

aS, €K€lvO K€pbdLV€LV rjyeiTCU, T T] V fjdoVTJV', TOVTO yiyVOdCTKCdV, OTtj 

ac. r. X. ; rco tj]v 'AfMpiTroXiv (pdaKetv Trapadtocreiv . . . . tovtco Trpocra- 
yayo\ievov. 

Rem. 7. A demonstrative pronoun, too, may be used, as in our 
language, either for the sake of perspicuity or emphasis, in referring 
to a word which is too far separated from its verb by intervening 
clauses, or is to be rendered specially prominent, thus resuming the 
subject; as, ovdels viroXapfidvei rov QiKltttvov tcou iv OpaKj] kclkuv 
. . . . tovtcdv [lev imSvp.e'iv. This emphatic use of the demonstra- 
tive is common when the relative clause precedes ; as, oca 6° e^dpos 
.... ireipdrai irpoXafielv .... irep\ rovrcov , etc. 

8. The interrogative ris is regularly used in direct ques- 
tions, but sometimes, also, instead of 6o~ris, in indirect ques- 
tions, when a writer, in order to impart greater animation to 
the discourse, asks an indirect question as though it were di- 
rect; as, tU el (who art thou) ; ov yap tern mKpcbs it-erao-ac tl 
rreirpaKTai rols aXkois (for it is not proper to examine what has 
been done by others) ; ovk olBa Sans ia-rlv (I know not who it 
is ; direct, who is it?). 

Rem. 8. There is the same distinction between all the direct 
and indirect interrogatives, both pronouns and adverbs (see the list 
in§ 27). 

9. The indefinite rh (a, a certain, some, somebody, some 
one) retains its indefinite meaning with adjectives and adverbs 
of quantity and quality, and, according to the circumstances, 
either weakens or strengthens their meaning ; as, ovdeis tls (no 
one in particular, almost no one) ; els tis (a certain one) ; eh 
tis eKaoros (each particular one ; see Soph. Ant. 262) ; puKpos 



130 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 49. 

Ti$ (somewhat small), <tx^ov n (something near) ; ttoo-os tls 
(something hoio large ? about hoio large ?). 

Rem. 9. From the indefinite sense of tls.tl, it sometimes comes to 
mean (like our somebody), great, distinguished ; as, rjvxeis t\s clvai 
(you claim to be somebody) ; boKel tl Xeyeti/ (he imagines he is saying 
something, i. e. something to the purpose). Sometimes, too, it is 
used in referring vaguely or modestly to the speaker or the one ad- 
dressed ; as, Savovcr oXei riva (dying she will destroy some one, i. e. 
the speaker). 

10. The relative pronoun (6s) has nothing peculiar in its 
usage (save in the matter of agreement, which will be treated 
under that head), except that it retains its original demonstra- 
tive meaning in 6s /xeV . . . . 6y 6\r (some .... others), kol 6s 
(and he), bs <a\ 6s (this one and that one), and rj d 7 6s (said 
he), even in common prose. 

Rem. 10. The indirect interrogative 6<ttis is also used as a rela- 
tive, but only in speaking of the character or class of something ; as, 
tls ovk av €7Taiveo~€i€v avbpa tolovtov, 6o~tis eoxocre rrjv Upav ttoKlv 
(such a man, ivho saved the sacred city) ; pandpios 6 arts ovcriav ko\ 
vovv e^et {whoever). 

§ 49. The Article. 

1. The Greek article (6, f), to) was originally a demonstra- 
tive pronoun, and retains much of its demonstrative force in 
common usage. It is properly only an attributive, and is 
used almost wholly like the English the. 

Rem. 1. In the Epic dialect it is regularly used as a demonstra- 
tive or relative, and to some extent in the Ionic and Doric, and even 
in the Tragedians ; as, 6 yap rjXOe Boas em vjjas y Axaia>p (for he came, 
etc.) ; aXka ra pev noXlcou i£ iirpaBopev, ra didaarat (but what we 
took from the cities, these have been divided), tciv . . . . 7rerpaia fi\a- 
ara bapiacrev (whom, etc.). It retains the strictly demonstrative mean- 
ing in Attic prose, only in the phrases 6 pkv . ... 6 be {the one .... 
the other), kol tov (and he), tov koI tov {this man and that ; so also to 
Kal to, this thing and that), to ye (this), npo tov {before this), tw (for 
this reason) ; or when standing immediately before one of the relatives 
6s, olos, 6o~os ', as, tov 6s e(p7) becrnovrjs tovtov eivai (him who said, 
etc.). 

2. The article imparts particularity or individuality to 
what without it is vague and general ; as, rj yvvrf (the woman, 



§ 49.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 131 

i. e. some particular woman indicated by the connection ; but 
yvvr), simply, a woman). 

Rem. 2. Even proper names, though properly without the article, 
since of themselves they indicate individuals, may take the article thus, 
when they refer to persons as icell known, or as previously named, and 
now referred to again ; as, avafiaivei ovv 6 Kvpos (i. e. the Cyrus who 
has been before named, and is the general subject of the discourse). 

Rem. 3. Even the attributive (whether adjective or noun in appo- 
sition) of a proper name takes the article only when some speciality 
is to be imparted to it ; but the names of rivers usually take the arti- 
cle and are placed before the general term for river as adjectives ; as, 
6 "AXvs 7rora/io?, the Halys river. So, too, often, of hills, countries, 
and islands. 

3. The idea of individuality expressed by the article some- 
times approaches the possessive, and sometimes the distribu- 
tive idea ; as, rb p.ipos (the usual part, one's own part) ; teal 

TaVTT]? €7TL 7rk€OVT€S Opdrjs TOVS (j)l\0VS 7TOLOVfJLe6a (we mdke the 

friends, i. e. the friends we need, our friends) ; edcoicev dvrl 
dapeiKov rpla fjixidapeiKa rod fj,rjv6s tw <tt par iu>ttj (three half- 
darics the month to each soldier). 

4. The article, also, like the English the (but much more 
extensively), is used to denote the species or class, as an ab- 
stract individuality ; aS, 6 7TCUS TTCLVTCOV BrjpLCOV €OTt dvO~p€Ta\ei- 

pio-TOTaros (the child is the most difficult to train of all animals). 

Rem. 4. Hence abstract nouns and designations of persons, offi- 
ces, arts, and sciences take the article when they are spoken of as a 
collective individuality, or in contrast with something else, but are 
without it when spoken of in their most abstract or ideal relations ; 
as, r] dperrj (the assemblage of qualities called virtue; but aperr), virtue 
in its vaguest sense, without any notion of a collective individuality) ; 
6eos (a god, god ; but 6 Seos, the god, the deity) ; avdpomos (a man, 
man; 6 avOpconos, the man, mankind). 

Rem. 5. But the article is often omitted where it might be used 
according to the above rules, especially in familiar relations and 
where frequent usage has worn off the speciality of the term ; as in 
7ra.TT]p, p<r)Trip, yvvr], and other designations of kindred ; also, in such 
terms as ttoXis, city, fjXios, sun, ^ao-tXevs, king, etc. 

Rem. 6. The article, too, is regularly omitted with a noun in the 
predicate, since the idea expressed by a noun in the predicate is al- 
ways general ; as, ovk olpai ere ti)v yecofierplav prjropiKrjv \kysw (I 
cannot think that you call the science of geometry rhetoric). 



132 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 49. 

5. Adjectives and participles used as nouns regularly take 
the article and express the class, and may sometimes be ren- 
dered into English by he icho, those who, etc. ; as, 6 a-oqbos 
(the wise man, i. e. as a class, as opposed to the foolish man) ; 
iv rals okiyapxlais ov% o /3 ov\6 fie v o s , aXX' 6 d v v a or r ev oav 

Karrjyopel (not the one who wishes, but the one who has the 
power). 

6. Adverbs, prepositions followed by their case, infinitives, 
sentences, also words and letters referred to merely as such, may- 
take the article (which is always the neuter to, — rarely to, — 
unless it refers to some noun implied after the adverb or prep- 
osition, when it is of the gender of that) before them, which 
gives them the force of nouns, or if a noun follows the adverb, 
the adverb preceded by the article has the force of an attribu- 
tive ; as, to irpoGrSev {the formerly , the former time), to irapairav 
(altogether), to. ejfiwpe00€p (formerly, lit. the things formerly 
said or done), to. pdXiora (in the highest degree), t6 kot e/xe 
(as to that pertaining to me, as far as I am concerned), to 
TTp&Tov (the first, at the first), t6 fiera tovto (after this, lit. the 
after this) ; ol lv aVret (supply avOpuiroi, the men of the city) ; 
so also with ol dfKpi Tiva (some one and his associates or follow- 
ers), and ei evBdbe, etc. ; ol Trakai avbp€s (the men of former 
times), 6 vvv fiao-tXevs (the present king) ; tovto 6° hrnv oi> p.6vov 
to fir) it poKCLTeyvcoKevai pLTjbev", to vp,els, the word you, 

etc. 

Rem. 7. The words most commonly understood with the article, 
in its above-named usage with adverbs and prepositions with their 
case, are avr\p or avSpwros (especially in the plural), yrj or x^P a > an d 
npaypia or XPIV- - ^ ne of these last (in the plural), also, is properly 
understood with tcl followed by a genitive without a preposition; as, 
tcl t?]s ttoX^cos (the affairs of the city). Ylos, also, is often understood 
with the article ; as, 6 ^lXlttttov (the son of Philip). Also any noun 
which has just been used may be omitted, and simply the article re- 
peated in its place. 

7. When a noun which takes the article has an adjective, 
participle, pronoun, a genitive case, or other qualifying word 
belonging to it as an attributive (§ 47, 5), the article is placed 



§ 49.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 133 

"before these qualifying words, which may stand either imme- 
diately before or immediately after the noun (which, in this 
latter case, sometimes has an article before it besides that of 
the attributive), and in both cases express a combined idea with 
the noun, and contrast it with other objects of the same class ; 
as, 6 ayaObs dvrjp or (6) durjp 6 dyafios (a good man, as contrasted 
with a bad man), 6 t&v 'A^ra/wi/ drjpos or (6) drjpos 6 tq>v 'AOn- 
vaicov (the Athenian people), 6 irpbs tovs Hepcras iroXepos or (6) iro- 
Xepos 6 irpbs tovs Uepaas (the Persian war), etc. 

Rem. 8. The article may be separated from its word, also, by pkv, 
de, ye, re, cipa, tol, tolwv, yap, Kal, dr), tls, avTos, iavTov, and an 
oblique case used as the object in a sentence ; as, tov pev avdpa. 

8. When an adjective belonging to a noun having the arti- 
cle does not hold an attributive relation to it, but properly 
belongs to the predicate after some form of dpi understood, it 
does not take the article before it, but either stands before the 
noun and article, or after them both ; as, 6 dvrjp o-o<fi6s or o-oobbs 
6 dvrjp (the man is wise, or when he is wise, since he is wise, 
etc., as the connection indicates). 

Rem. 9. The words aKpos, peaos, eaxaTos, when related to a noun 
as in the last case, mean the top, the middle, the extreme; but when 
they stand in the attributive relation, they have their proper adjective 
meaning ; as, rj iroXis pear) (the middle of the city), but r) pear] iroXis, 
the middle city, the central city, etc. So, also, 6 povos irais or irais 6 
povos means the only son, while 6 irais povos or povos 6 irais means the 
son alone. 

9. Several nouns (or other wbrds used substantively) stand- 
ing independent of each other, and connected by Kal or re ... . 
Kai, have the article repeated before each ; but when they all 
express one combined idea, the article is placed before the 

first noun only ; as, Kai r) acocj^poo-vvr] Kal r) diKaioo-vvrj Kal r) dv- 
hpela ; but Kal rbv olvo^oov Kal pdyeipov Kal liriroKopov Kal dirjKovov. 

Rem. 10. According to the same principle, the article is repeated 
with each, or placed only before the first, of two attributives belong- 
ing to one noun ; as, 6 apio~Tos irais 6 dyairrjros (the best, the beloved 
child) ; but ol avpiravres aXXoi (piXoL {all other friends together; where 
the last attributive and noun express a combined idea, which is quali- 
fied by the first attributive) . 

12 



134 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 50. 

10. When a personal or demonstrative pronoun, or iras y 

anas, oXo?, €Kao~Tos, eKarepos, ap(pco, dpLcfaoTepos, IS used With a 
noun having the article, it is commonly placed either before 
or after the noun and article, but iras, anas, and oXos often 
take the article before them as other attributives, and the 
demonstrative pronouns expressing quality or quantity (tolov- 
tos, rotocrSe, toctovtos, and t^lkovtos) regularly do ; as, v^els 6 
drjfios ; 6 avqp ovtos (or the reverse, and so in the other exam- 
ples) ; avros 6 fiacrikzvs ; jrdvTts oi crTpaTTjyoi ; dp<fioT€p<o ra oara ; 
but always 6 toiovtos (etc.) durjp ; and often rj nava yrj (the 
whole earth) and to o\ov Trpoo-coirov, the whole face. 

Rem. 11. With the indefinite words aXXos, erepos, 7ro\vs, and 
6\iyos, the article is used precisely as with the corresponding words 
in English. Thus, dXKos, other, different, 6 dWos, the other (but aXXos 
both with and without the article sometimes means besides, or is wholly 
pleonastic) ; <?T€pos, one of two, 6 erepos, the one or the other of txuo, 
oi erepoL, the one or the other of two parties; 7roXkoi, many, oi ttoXKoi, 
the many ; 6\lyoi,few, oi oAi'yoi, the few. 

§ 50. The Adjective. 

1. The adjective is properly used only as an attribute and 
in the predicate ; as, 6 o-o(f>6s dvr/p ; 6 dvrjp o~o<fi6s (io-nv). 

2. The neuter ad ective, however, is sometimes used substan- 
tively, and hence in all the relations in which a noun may be 
used. Hence the neuter sing, expresses the quality abstractly, 
while the neuter plur. expresses it concretely, or as exhibited 
in different parts or kinds, or under different conditions ; as, 
to koXoi/, the beautiful ; ra Ka\d, beautiful things. The adjec- 
tive and participle, also, in the neuter sing, is often used to 
express the idea in the most comprehensive form ; as, to Kparovp, 
the ruling power. 

Rem. 1. The neuter sing, of adjectives in -ikov (and some others) 
denotes a collective idea; as, to vavTiKov (the naval force) ; to viov (the 
youth), etc. But the neuter plural of such adjectives denotes a con- 
nected series of events (xpr)^aTa or irpdypaTa being understood) ; as, 
to. Ipo'iKd, the Trojan war ; tcl 'EAA^z/i/ca, Grecian affairs, interests, or 
history, etc. So also with the neuter plur. of the possessive pro- 
nouns ; as, to. rjfjL€T€pa, our affairs, to. ipd, my affairs. 



§ 50.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 135 

3. Masculine and feminine adjectives (and participles), also, 
are sometimes used as substantives, the noun being under- 
stood ; as, ol Ovvroi, mortals, ol o-ofyoi, the wise, el e^oures, the 
rich, etc., where avOpconoi or avdpes is understood. Also, rj 

va-repaia (tmovo-a, Trpcarrj, devrcpa, etc.), with rjpepa understood ; 
f) TToXefila (qbiXia, olKovfi€ur), awdpos), with x^P a or 71 understood ; 
f) evdfia and rj TayivTr) (sc. bhos) ; f) de£ia and rj dpio-repd (sc. 
X €ip), etc. 

4. When two adjectives qualify one noun, they are con- 
nected by Kal, or re ... . Kal when each qualifies it independ- 
ently and equally (and if there be more than two adjectives, 
only the last two have the connective) ; but when one or more 
adjectives form a combined idea with a noun, they may be 
qualified by an additional adjective (most frequently a pro- 
noun or numeral) without a conjunction ; as, o-oobos re «w dya- 
66s Kal ko\6s dvrjp ; but 7roXXoi dyaBol avdpes ', ovtos 6 dvrjp 
dya66s', rpels dyaSoX avd pes, etc. 

Rem. 2. But 7roXXoi is generally connected with the following 
adjective by a conjunction, contrary to the usage in English. 

5. Where a quality is equally applicable to the idea of the 

noun and the action of the verb, the Greek, as well as the 

Latin, often uses an attributive adjective, where we use a 

predicative adjective, or an adverb or adverbial phrase ; as, 

rjcplrj 6° dveftT] (she early ascended, since she was early and 

her ascent early), etc. 

Rem: 3. Many adjectives of place, time, manner, and causality are 
used thus; as, np&ros, varraros, picros ; o\jnos, x#i£os ; ra^vs, (3pa8vs, 
€k6)v, ttvkvos, povos, etc. Thus eyoo povos elfti means, I alone or only 
will go ; but eyo) povov elpi means, I will only go (and nothing else), 
etc. But where the quality is applicable only to the predicate, the 
adverb is always used. 

6. The adjective in the comparative represents its quality 
as belonging to some object in a higher degree than it exists 
in some other object with which it is contrasted (hence imply- 
ing only two objects or parties) ; while the superlative repre- 
sents it as existing in something in the highest degree in which 



136 WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. [§ 50. 

it exists in any object with which it properly comes into com- 
parison. 

Rem. 4. The comparative is sometimes strengthened by such 
words as en (still) ; paKpoo, noXKop, peya, tto\v (much) ; oXiyco, oklyov 
(little) ; roaovrco, ocrco, toctovto, bcrov (so much, how much) ; and occa- 
sionally even by paXkov, which then means/ar. 

Rem. 5. The superlative is often found strengthened by nearly all 
the words which strengthen the comparative, except en and paXXov; 
also by kcli (even), kol paXiora (even in the highest degree), nXelo-rov, 
peyio-rov, paXuara ; by cos, ottcos, oti, fj. and olos (as possible, possible; 
as, cos raxicrra, as quickly as possible) ; by els dufjp (one man, for a sin- 
gle man, as, kol ttclvtcov els dvr]p peylaroov alrios KCLKGov, and the 
cause, as far as one man can be, of all the greatest evils) ; also iv rols 
(imprimis, especially, by far), where the article must either refer to the 
dat. plur. of the superlative understood, Or to some neuter noun of 
general import, as x?hl xa(JLV ' The negative is also used with the su- 
perlative, instead of a direct superlative of the opposite meaning; as. 
ovx fJKicrra, ovk. iXaxio-ros (not the least, instead of the direct superla- 
tive greatest). 

7. When two qualities of the same subject are compared, 
both adjectives (or adverbs) are put in the comparative and 
connected by the comparative particle fj ; as, ol dgels p,aviKoo- 
repot rj dvdp€i6r€poi {more mad than brave); but when the 
same quality is compared in two subjects, they are connected 
by 7, as before, but only the first adjective is in the compara- 
tive ; as, ovdev Kpelaaov r) cf)i\os o-afyrjs, nothing is better than a 
firm friend. 

Rem. 6. In the last case, the genitive of the latter of the two attri- 
butes compared (or, by a shortened process, of the object itself, not un- 
frequently, instead of the quality) may be used, instead of fj and the 
same case as that of the noun in the first member (see § 54, 1) ; as, 
X<*>P a ovbev tjttov rrjs fjperepas (than ours, or sometimes fipcov, 
t than we) evripov. 

8. When the thing compared is considered disproportion- 
ately great or small considering that with which it is com- 
pared, the comparison is expressed by the comparative and 
fj coo-re (rarely jf or 5 o>?) with the infinitive, when the object 
with which the comparison is made is an action ; and by 
*/ Kara (npos rare) with the ace, in other cases ; as, rjv pel {a 
Katca ?) coo-re avaK.\aeiv {the evils were too great to be be- 






§ 50.] WORDS AS SUBJECT, PREDICATE, ETC. 137 

Wailed); ol'Adrjpcuoi ev SiKeAt'a /xet£a> rj Kara baKpva eTreirovOe- 
<rav, the Athenians had suffered evils in Sicily too great for 
tears. 

9. The comparative is often used without any object ex- 
pressed with which the comparison is made, when either that 
object is easily supplied from the context or is sufficiently 
implied in it, or when the idea simply is that some quality 
exists in an object in a greater or less degree than common or 
is desirable ; as, ol ISi&rai d^eivovs ras yvw/ias exov<ri (private 
citizens have the letter views, i. e. better than public men) ; 
ov x € ^P 0V 7r6X\aKis clkovclv (it is not worse to hear often, i. e. 
worse than it would be to hear but once, = no disadvan- 
tage). Often this kind of comparison may be translated into 
our language by too, very, somewhat, etc. 

10. When a subject is compared with itself under different 
circumstances, the comparative or superlative of an adjective 
is used with the gen. of the reflexive pronouns; as, fteXrlcov 
€i o-eavTov (you are superior to yourself) ; apio-rosavrds 
iavrov la-Tiv (he is in his lest days). 

Rem. 7. The superlative is sometimes used with rcov akXcov in- 
stead of the comparative ; as, rcov aWcov voraroi, {inferior to the rest; 
lit. the last of the rest). So in Latin (Tac), ii ceterorum Britanno- 
rum fugacissimi. In such passages, the meaning the rest or others 
seems to pass into that of all, since it includes all except the subject 
of the comparison. 

Note. As the verb will be fully treated of hereafter, it does not 
require a separate treatment here. It need here only be said, that 
some forms of thai (principally the pres. indie.) are often omitted, 
leaving the subject without a predicate ; particularly in general state- 
ments and proverbs ; with the verbal in reos and nouns and adjectives 
denoting necessity and duty (as, dvdyKr], defies, elicos, etc.) ; and with 
the adjectives, eroipos, 7rp66vfios, (ppovdos, olos re, dvvaros, pdhiov, 
XaXenov, drjXov, and a£iov. 



12 



138 AGREEMENT. [^ 51. 

CHAPTER II. 

AGREEMENT. 

§ 51. General Rules of Agreement. 

1. The verb agrees with its subject in person and num- 
ber, and the adjective (participle, pronoun, and numeral) in 
gender, number, and case; as, av Xeyeis ; 6 o-ocfrbs dvrjp ; 

T] yVVT) (TO(f)f) €(TTIV, etC. 

2. The noun in apposition, or in the predicate, necessa- 
rily agrees with the subject only in case ; it agrees with 
it in gender and number only when it is a personal 
appellative, and hence either has separate forms for the mas- 
culine and feminine, or is of the common gender ; as, ILpkmv, 
6 rvpavvos, or Kpecov t)v rvpavvos ; * &vTiy6vr), r\ fia(ri\is, or 'AvTiyovrj 
f)v fiaoriXls ', r) yvvrj (or 6 dvrjp) diddaKaXos 1<ttiv ', but yvvr) dcwov 
tl koWos, a woman, a paragon of beauty, 

3. After verbs signifying to be, exist, become, grow, remain, 

appear, to be called, named, appointed, chosen, regarded as 

something, and the like, the adjective or noun in the predicate 

agrees with the subject, whether it be a noun or pronoun, 

according to the above principles ; as, Kpeav iyhero rvpavvos, 

Kreon became a tyrant ; $[hnnros -fipedn o-rparnyos, Philip was 

chosen general ; avrn iarl 7rrjyr) dp€TTjs, this is the fountain of 

virtue ; naures ovtoi vojaol cla-lv, ovs, k. t. X., all these things 

are laws, which, etc. 

Rem. 1. But where the pronoun, as subject, refers to some gen- 
eral idea, as thing, affair, etc., or where it relates to the nature of 
something, it commonly stands in the neuter without regard to the 
gender of the noun in the predicate ; as, tovto iamv r) aperr) ; tl eWt 
dperr) (what is virtue'? i. e. what is its nature?). 

4. Verbs, adjectives, and nouns agreeing with two or more 
subjects are in the plural (or in the du^l when the two subjects 
are viewed as a pair). As to the gender of the plural adjec- 
tive here, it is of the same gender as the subjects, when they 



§ 51.] AGREEMENT. 139 

are of like gender with each other; bvit in the mascu- 
line, when the nouns are personal appellatives and of ' 
different genders; and with other nouns, generally in the 
neuter; d.S,'Aydd<ov Kal ScoKpdrrjs \oL7Tol ; f) rv XV KaL h ap€Tt) 
Kvptal licriv ; rj firjTTjp Kol r} Bvydrrjp rjcrav KtiXal ; 6 avy)p KCLl 
fj yvvrj ayaOo'i elo~L ; likivOoi kol £v\a xpr]o-ipa lariv. 

Rem. 2. But the verb and adjective (the attributive adjective reg- 
ularly) often agree with the nearest of several nouns, or with one 
which is viewed as prominent above the rest, instead of agreeing with 
them all ; as, kol vopos kol (f>6(3os iKavos epcora kco\v€lv ; riyyai 
iraaai kol cro(f>l(r p.ara did rov UXovrov eV#' evprjpieva', iirvdtro 
2rpofi(3 ixidrjv kol ras vavs dive\r)\v6 ora. 

Rem. 3. Sometimes, too, irregularly, nouns connected by rj or 
fj . . . . fj, ovt€ .... ovre (either .... or, neither .... nor), have 
their predicate in the plural, and one or more plural nouns of the mas- 
culine or feminine gender have their predicate in the singular ; as, 
a Arjpcxficov rj QrjpnnrLbrjs e^owi ', Iva y iyvnrai dno rrjs dot-rjs 
d p x a i T€ Kal ydp.ai. 

5. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb is 
in the plural (except occasionally, when it agrees with the 
nearest subject), and of the first person, when one of the sub- 
jects is of that person, but of the second when one of them is 
of the second person and none of the first ; otherwise in the 
third person ; as, iyco ko.1 crv \eyopev ; iyco ko\ avros \eyo[i€v ; <rv 
Kal avrol Aeyere ; vfiels Kal avros Xeyere. 

6. The gender and number of the relative pronoun, and 
the person and number of its verb, are commonly determined 
by those of the nouns and pronouns to which the relative re- 
fers (antecedent), according to the above principles ; but its 
case depends upon the office which it sustains in its ow ( n sen- 
tence ; as, iyco, os Xeyco ; dvr)p, ov eldov, crocpos icrriv, etc. 

Rem. 4. The antecedent of the relative is often omitted, when it 
is some general word or demonstrative pronoun, or may be easily 
supplied from the context ; but the gender and number of the relative 
is the same as if they were expressed ; as, Ik rcov irapovrcov Kal a> v 
Sparc (i. e. €K rov rcov a Spare) < 



140 AGREEMENT. [§ 52. 

§ 52. Special Rules of Agreement. 

1. The gender and number of the predicative adjective 
(rarely of the attributive adjective, but often of the part, in a 
remote attributive relation) and of the relative or other pro- 
noun, and the number of the verb, are often determined, rather 
by what is implied in the nouns to which they refer (i. e. by 
the sense), than by their grammatical form, particularly after 
words used in a collective sense ; as, &s (pdorav fj irX^Ovs, 
thus spake the multitude. 

2. Upon this principle a masculine plural is often used re- 
ferring to a collective noun of any gender, or to the 
name of a city or country used for its inhabitants^ or the name 
or designation of an individual used for its class, since in all 
these cases several persons are implied ; as, to o-rpdrevpa 

€7TOpL^€TO oTlTOV, K 6 TV T V T € S TOVS fioVS KCU OVOVS ', 0€fJLL(TTOKXrjS 

(fievyei is Kepuvpav, &>v avrcov evepyerrjs (Themistocles flies to 

Corcyra, being their benefactor) ; 6 Adpaxos irapeftoriBei dnb rov 
evwvpov tov ia vtcqv (Lamachus came to their aid from his own 
left wing, i. e. of his own men) ; dXnOfjs rjv cfilXos, Z>v dpidpbs 
ov 7r6kvs (he was a true friend, of whom — i. e. of such as 
who — the number is small). 

Rem. 1. For the same reason a plural is often used with the col- 
lective or distributive words eKaaros, etcdrepos, t\s } irds ris, ovdels, 
os civ and octtls, aWos ciXkov (aWodev) ; as, ecpvyov etc rrjs dyopds, 
Set) tore s els e Kao~ tos prj avXrjcpOeLT] ; ovd els eK0ipf)6rj , rovs 
dnoXcoXoras TrevOovvres', Kal pe elcriovra r]o~7rd£ovTo aXXos aX- 
XoOev (me coming up they saluted, one in one way and another in 
another) ; 6av pd^ovres aXXos aXXcp eXeyev. 

3. An adjective in the predicate, or a relative or demonstra- 
tive pronoun, referring rather to the general idea thing, affair, 
kind, race, art, act, etc. than to the specific idea of the word 
with which it is grammatically connected, is often put in the 
neuter {neuter sing., unless sometimes when referring to two 
nouns) without reference to the gender or number of the 

noun; as, 17 yrj iyevvrjcrev av6 pair ov, o (ivllich race) crvvearei 

InepexeL tcov aKkcov ', deivov oi noXXol (the masses are a terrible 



§ 52.] AGREEMENT. 141 

thing) ; Ka\6v fih rj o-axfipocrvpr] re kcu 8iKaioo~vvr) (a noble 

tiling) ; (f)i\ocro<fiia eorrl x a p' l€V (& pleasant thing), av tls avTov 

perpicos ayjfrjTcu iv rrj rjXiKia ; ovk oida eire xpl kclkiclv eir ayvoiav 

the kcu dfjL(j>6T€pa ravr' direiv (whether to call it cowardice 

or ignorance, or both these things together) ; oldep.la Trapaivecris 

dyadovs av 7roif]<r€ie ro^oras, etp) ep.Trpoo~6ev tovto (this art) 

fjLcpLekerrjKOTes €iev 5 cj)Bove7 t) kcu <£o/3eirat, ap(f>oTepa yap rdde 

7rao-x« rd ueifa (both these things, i. e. envy and fear, implied 

in the verbs (fidovel and <£o/3eiTat). 

Rem. 2. In like manner the verbal adjectives in -tos and -reos and 
some others, are generally placed in the neuter plural in the predicate, 
when the verb is impersonal, or in other words has for its subject an 
infinitive or sentence; as, ovtcos yvvaiKos ovbapSs f) o-cttjtc a iariv, 
thus ive should never make ourselves inferior to a woman. 

4. A subject in the neuter plural generally has a singular 

verb, unless sometimes when individuals are implied in the 

neuter, or a plurality of parts is to be indicated ; as, ra £coa 

rpkx**' '•> KaKov yap dvdpbs da>p y ovnviv ovk e^ei ; but to. reXn 

(the magistrates) 6p.6o~avTa £ £e7T€ pifrav. 

Rem. 3. So, too, generally, with a part, in the accusative abso- 
lute ; as, do£av (sometimes ho^avra, also) ravra, these things having 
been approved. 

5. As the dual is plural compared with the singular, and 

is used only when two things are viewed as paired together, 

and only enough to indicate this connection, a plural predicate 

or qualifying word often refers to a dual subject ; while a 

dual predicate or qualifying word sometimes refers to a plural 

subject; as, bv* dvkpe Ocoprjo-arovro ; x ei P- a PP 0L wora/noV, 

Kar opeacfx, piovres orv pftdXXeTov oj3pipov vdcop ; eyeXaad- 

rrjv afi(f)co fiXeylsavTes els dXXrjXco. 

Rem. 4. For the same reason a plural is often connected with 
Siko, since this by itself sufficiently indicates the duality of the sub- 
ject ; as, dvci) vUes. 

6. Feminine duals almost always take an attributive in the 
masculine form, the feminine form of the adjective, article, 
and pronoun being but little used in the dual ; as, rcb ^ope ; 
tovto) to) Teyya ; toIv \epo7u ; afKJxo tovtco fjpepa* 



142 AGREEMENT. [§ 52. 

7. The predicate of a sentence, as well as the relative pro- 
noun of the following clause (when there is one), properly 
agrees with the subject of the sentence ; but sometimes, by a 
species of attraction, the predicate (or part, in the participial 
construction), or the following relative, agrees with the noun 
in the predicate ; or more frequently, the relative agrees with 
the noun in the predicate of its own clause ; as, ij pev brj nepi- 
odos .... elal crrddioi e£ ; rovs yap peyicrra e £tj pa prrj ko- 
ras, peyicrrqv de ov<rav .pXafirjv 7r6\ecos (for ovras) ; Kal diKrj 
iv dv6pa)7rois ttcds ov Ka\6v, 6 (referring to Kakov, instead of 
dUrj) iravTCL fjpe pance to. av6pG>irwa\ Xoyot pr\v elan iv eKacrrois 
fjpcov, as eXnidas ovopa^opev. 

Rem. 5. The neuter article, too, before a phrase which is quoted 
and used as a noun, is sometimes attracted into the gender of the noun 
which precedes; as, KaXrjv ecprj TvapaLveo-iv eivai. rrjv md bvvap.iv ep- 
detv (for to icad, k. t. X.). 

8. A superlative having a partitive gen. depending upon it 
generally agrees in gender with the subject, rarely with the 
genitive; as, tj \v7ttj xa\e7rcordr7) naB&v. 

9. Since the possessive pronoun, and various other adjec- 
tives derived from the names of places and meaning belong- 
ing to, are equivalent to the gen. of the corresponding pro- 
nouns or nouns, the noun in apposition with the genitive idea 
contained in these pronouns and adjectives is always in the 
genitive case ; as, epos rod d6\lov /3/os {the life of me the 
wretched) ; 'AOrjvalos &v (being an inhabitant of Athens) no- 
Xecos rrjs p€yio-TT]s ; S o~(f)€T€pos avTcov 7raTr)p (the father oj them, 
themselves, i. e. their father). 

10. When the antecedent (whether expressed or understood) 

of a relative is in the genitive or dative, the relative, if it 

would regularly be in the accusative (rarely when it would 

be in any other case), is attracted into the same case as its 

antecedent; as, o-vv rols 6r\ crav pols ols 6 irar^p KareXnrev 

(for a) ; €K ra>v 7rapovT<£>v na\ a>i> Spare (for Ka\ €K rovrav, a Spare). 

Rem. 6. This applies not only to the relative os, but to the other 
relatives (see § 27). Indeed, the relatives olos, oaos, So-rtaovv, and 



§ 52.] AGREEMENT. 143 

tjXlkos are attracted into the case of the antecedent noun in the princi- 
pal clause (the correlative demonstrative being suppressed) even when 
they would regularly stand in the nominative, as predicate, with the 
verb dvai. Besides, the subject of the relative sentence is attracted 
into the same case as the relative, the verb elvai is suppressed, and 
both the relative and subject are often transposed to the principal 
clause and placed before the antecedent; as, x a P^C°f JLaL °^ °~ 0L 
dvdpt, instead of ^ap/^o/xat dvdpl tolovtco, olos o~v ei, I am pleased 
with such a man as you are. 

Rem. 7. But the relative, instead of being attracted into the case 
of the antecedent, is sometimes attracted into the case required by the 
subordinate clause which immediately follows it, and sometimes re- 
mains unchanged, while the antecedent is attracted into its case; 
as, dv6pd)7rovs, ols (for ol) oirorav tls rrKeiova yaa-Qbv 8tSo>, /xer' eket- 
vcov e(j) rj/jids aKoXovSrjcrovcriv ; rrjv overlap (for r) ovaria) r)v KareXnrev 
ov nXeiovos d£ia eVrt ; irepco (for erepov) d* otco kczkoV tl dooaofxev 
{rjrelv ; 7rep\ hv ovdeva Kivbvvov (for ovdels Kivbvvos) ovtlv ov% vire- 
fi€ivav ol irpoyovoi. 

11. When the noun to which the relative refers is trans- 
posed to the relative clause, (which is chiefly done when the 
relative sentence is emphatic, in which case, also, it some- 
times has a demonstrative in the principal clause referring 
emphatically to the transposed noun,) it is placed after the 
relative more or less closely, and the relative may be regarded 
as agreeing directly with the noun, like our what or whatever ; 
as, %v eldes avbpa, ovtos io-riv (what man you saw, this is he) ; 
kol yap €7r£/xeXeicr^at 6eovs ipofjLifcv dvSpcuTrcov^ ov% ov rpoirov ol 
7roXXol vofjil£ovo-i (not in what manner). 

•Rem. 8. Before the plural relatives ot, olrives without an antece- 
dent expressed, tariv is generally used instead of the plural, and in 
all tenses ; as, eariv ot diri(f)vyov (there were those or some who fled), 
eo-Tiv hv direo-x^To (there are some from whom he abstained), and so, 
with different verbs, the relative is found in all cases, without any 
change of cotiv. In imitation of this formula, we find ecrnv rj or 07177 
(there is some way in which = in some way), eoriv ore (there is when 
= some time) , etc. 



144 THE GENITIVE. [§ 53. 

CHAPTER III. 

THE OBLIQUE CASES. — OBJECT. 
SECTION I. 

THE GENITIVE. 

§ 53. Genitive of the Cause, Ground, or Origin. 

1. Verbs of proceeding from, becoming, arising from, hav- 
ing become or arisen, being produced or created, take a genitive 
of that whence they proceed, etc. {genitive of origin 

Or author}. Such verbs are yiyueaSai, (frvvai, elvai (<£eureo-#ai, 
T€Kvovo-0ai, poetic) ; as, eo-0\a>v y€P€o-6ai, to be born of noble 
parents ; so, too, K€K\fj<r6al twos, to be called the son of some 
one; dpicrrcov avbp&v aptcrra fiovkevficiTa ylyvovrai, the best 
counsel comes from the best, etc. 

Rem. 1. But more commonly, in prose, the preposition e«, some- 
times dno or bed, is connected with the gen. with this class of verbs ; 
as, €K rovrewv be yvvaiKcov oi vvv Bafivkavioi ytyovaaiv. 

Rem. 2. In poetry, we find the causal gen. used thus to denote 
the origin or author of some state, after passive and intransitive verbs 
of all kinds, instead of the regular construction with vtto, irapd, irpos, 
€K, 6\'a ; as, 7r\r) yc\s dvyar pos ttjs €jjltjs vnep Kapa, being struck 
on the head by my daughter. 

2. Veros of smelling, emitting or breathing forth an odor, 
take the genitive of the thing, and sometimes of the spot, 
which emits the odor, and hence is the cause of the 
smell ; such as ttvUlv, o^lv, Trpoo-fiaXKeiv ; as, p.vpov ivvfw, to be 
redolent with perfumes. 

3. Verbs denoting sensation and perception generally take 
the gen. of the source of the perception. Such 

verbs are aKovtiv, aKpoda-Oai (kKv€lv, d'Uvat, poetic), a7roSe^e<j^at, 
alcr6dvecr6ai, do-typaivecrOai, avvievai, etc. ; as, kcu Kcocpov (rvvirjfii 
Kal OV (f)<D vcvptos aKovco. 

Rem. 3. The thing heard, etc., as distinguished from its cause 
or source, when expressed is regularly in the accusative with these 



§ 53.] THE GENITIVE. 145 

verbs (as, o-vvlno-i oira Seas, he perceives the voice of the goddess) ; 
but it is often put in the genitive, it being conceived at the same time 
as the cause ; as, ipov Xeyovros ovk yj Kovaarc (me speaking, 
my speech) . 

Rem. 4. As obedience implies listening to one's directions, the 
verbs aKovciv, v7raK.ov€iv, KaraKovecv, dvnKovaTelv, kXvclv often take the 
gen. in this sense, and occasionally 7rei'0ecrt9cu (and the opposite cni-ei- 
Ofiv), instead of the dative; also, the adjectives Karroos, vtttjkoos ; 
as, 0€ov $' coy SrjfjLos aKovev (obeyed as a god) ; v7tt]k6ovs tup 
dpxoprcov . 

4. Also verbs of seeing, learning, considering, knowing ; 
judging, examining, inquiring, saying ; congratulating, ad- 
miring, praising, Uaming, take the gen. (sometimes with 
Trtpi) of that (generally a person) about, of, for, or in 
which one sees, blames, etc. something. Such verbs are 
opdv, Otao-Oai, o-ko7T€7v, vnovoeiv, Ivvoziv, yiyvcoafceiu, eTricrTacrSai, 
tldevai, IvQvpfiorQai, and the like ; Trvvddveo-Oat,, alo~6dv€<r6ai, pavQd- 
veiv, Kpivew, egeTafciv, Aeyeiz>, drj\ovv, and the like ; £rj\ovv, aya- 
crOai, 6avp.d£siv, liraLva.v, pepcfreo-dai ; as, kcu rrpcorov pep avrcov 
e o- k 6 7r e i , and in the first place he considered about them ; 
d tadeco pe vo s clvt g>v , oanv pev x^P av KCLL °^ aP tX 0L€V > oehold" 
ing on their part, how great and what a country they had. 

Rem. 5. The action, quality, circumstance, or whatever it is which 
is examined, praised, etc. in something, is either in the ace, or is 
expressed by a subordinate clause, or by a participle agreeing with 
the gen. ; as, rod ro^orov ov kclXcds %X €L Xeyetv, on, k. t. X., 
about the archer it is not well to say, that, etc.; ttoWo. c Op.r]pov 
inaivovvres . But with Oavpd&iv and ayaadat both the person 
and the quality, etc. are sometimes in the gen. ; as, Savpdfa 2<DKpd- 
tovs tt]s cro^las, I admire Socrates for his wisdom. 

5. Verbs expressing grief, pleasure, sympathy, etc. take a 
gen. (sometimes with rrepi) of that at or on account of 
which the feeling is exercised. Such verbs are dXyelv, 
olKT€Lp€iv, ohvpzo-dai, rjdeoSac, 6\o<fivp€o~6ai, etc. ; as, ovtl ydpov 
toctovtov obvpopai; tt co fiar os fj o~ 6 n . 

Rem. 6. But verbs expressing sorrow, sympathy for, and many 
other verbs denoting affections of the mind, often take the accusa- 
tive (see § 57, 3), instead of the gen., the occasion of the feeling 
being viewed more as an object; as, 6 Kvpos aKovo-as rod pev irdBovs 

13 



146 THE GENITIVE. [§ 53. 

coKreipev avrov. And some take the dative (see § 60, 1), the meaning 
being grieved, etc. at something. 

6. Adjectives, also, expressing the idea of misery (espe- 
cially in exclamations), and interjections implying the same, 
take the gen. as the cause of the wretchedness; 
as, & ra\aiva tcov 8' d\y ecov ! O wretched from your suffer- 
ings ! ot [Mo i 8 i co y fx co v ! at at kclkcdv ! So in many other 
exclamatory expressions ; as, co TL6o-ei8ov, rov fiaKpovs ! O Nep- 
tune, for the length ! 

7. So verbs expressing other strong feelings, as of anger 
and annoyance, take the gen. (sometimes with Trept or hi) of 
the occasion of the feeling, such as x°^°^o-^ at 5 x^ € ' 

crOaL, pLVvUiv, 6vp.ovcr6ai, Korelv, a^OecrOai, ^aXe7raiVetv, etc. ; as, 

Aavacov Kexo^cofiivoi, being angry on account of the Greeks. 

Rem. 7. Bat many verbs expressing anger and many other verbs 
of feeling often govern the dat. (sometimes in addition to the gen.), 
which is frequently used in a causal relation (see ^ 60. 1); but the 
meaning with the dat. is, to be angry, etc. at something, rather than 
'on account of. 

Rem. 8. The gen. of the infin. with the article is often used to 
denote the aim or intent of an action, as its final cause ; as, rov 
li rj 8 lacpevye iv rov \aycov, that the hare may not escape. 

8. Words denoting knowledge, skill, experience, practice of 
or in something (and their opposites) ; capability, power, 
fitness, or talent for something, take the gen. of that in 
which the knowledge, skill, etc. are exhibited, as the 
cause or occasion of its existence. Such words are, einrtipos, 

Cl7T€ipOS, €77LCrTr]LlCDV, €77lO-TdjjL€l'OS, ClV€TTUTTT]lUOV (rarely (7000?, CTVP€L- 

6Yz/at), rpiftcov, crvyyvcop.cov, d8a.T]s, aidpts, ciTraidevros, Idicorrjs, 18lco- 
T€V€lv, 7r€ipacr6ai, 8iaTreipd(r6ai, aTrcmeipdo'Oai, dneipcos, ££vcos €\eiv, 

etc. ; verbal adjectives in -ik6$, and all others in which the 
notion of any capacity is implied ; as, crvyyvcop.cov tcov dvQpcoTtivcov 
it pay par cov, acquainted with human affairs ; ov8 y apa .SiSao-zca- 
X i k6 s 6 prjTcop io-rl 8 i k a ctt n pi cov , the orator, then, is not ca- 
pable of instructing the courts. Also many other adjectives 
of an active meaning ; as, ydiioi o\k6 po i <fi [\ cov, marriages 
which ruin friends. 



§ 53.] THE GENITIVE. 147 

9. Verbs of caring for, looking out for, being concerned 
for, and their opposites, take the gen. (sometimes with wept or 
vn€p) of that (person or thing) which occasions or calls 
forth the care or concern; such as e7ri/xeXeo-0ai or eVt/xeXeT- 

(rdaty (fipovTi&iv, KTjBecrdat,, Trpovoeiv, irpoopdv, fxeXei, yuera/xe'Xet, a/xe- 
Xelv, 6\LycL>p€LV, Karaippopelv, cfieideo-Oai, (pyXdrTecrdat (e/z7ra£eo-#at, 
o&€o~6cu, akeyeiitf dXeyi&w, T-qixeXtiv, poetic), etc. ; as, ovtjeu (fipov- 
t I £eiv co v ^XP y ) v 5 tov ar ltov tt p oo pdv . 

Rem. 9. MeXet, which is regularly impersonal, and takes the dat. 
of the person concerned, and the gen. of that which concerns it (as, 
/LteXet not twos), is sometimes personal in poetry, and even in prose 
may take a neuter pronoun as nom. ; as, p,€X7]o~ovo~i °"' ^M 01 wttol. 
Some of the verbs of this class, also, sometimes take an ace, but in a 
strictly transitive sense ; as, (ppovTL&w tl, to examine something, 

10. Verbs of pouring libations or drinking to one, take the 
gen. of the person (or something connected with a person) i n 
honor, or out of regard to whom the act is per- 
formed ; as, crireio-ov dyaOoii Aatpovos, pour the libation in honor 
of the good Damon ; koX cpiXoTno-ias irpovirivev, and drank for 
his health, i. e. drank his health. So x^o-dai, iwixelo-Oai, etc. 

11. Verbs signifying a desire or longing for take the gen. 
of that which is desired, as the cause or occasion of 
the feeling ; such as, Itti6v\xCiv, Ipdv, epao-dm {Iparl^Lv, poetic), 
lfi€ip€LV, lp,eip€crdcu (XiXaUorOai, eX&V crSac, poetic) , diaKelo-Oai ; biy\/r}v, 
TTCtvrjv, etc. ; as, 7roXe/zou % par a i irndijijiiov ; 7rdvT€S tcov dya- 

6 <D V €TTL 6 VfXOV 0~ L V, 

Rem. 10. The verbs izoOeiv, (pCXziv, dyaTreiv, crrepyeiv do not take a 
gen., but an ace. (the last two a dat. in the sense contented with) ; 
also, some other verbs of this class occasionally. 

12. The following classes of verbs, which take their object 
(generally a person) in the ace. or dat., often take, also, a 
genitive (in some cases with dvri, nepi, eveKa or ck) denoting 
the cause or ground of the act or state, viz. verbs of 
envying, grudging ; of requital, revenge ; accusing, condemn- 
ing ; prosecuting, sentencing ; such as, <fi6ovelv, peyaipew ; rio-a- 
crBai, Tip&pficrBai, rifKopelu (ace. pers., gen. of thing) ; alTida-$ai 9 



148 THE GENITIVE. [§ 54, 

iTraLTtdaOat, $id>K€iv, elo-dyeiv, vndyetv, ypd(p€crdaL, TTpoo-KakeicrOai,, 
8ucd£eiv 9 KpLveiv, alpctv (ace. pers., gen. of thing) ; i^ukvai, iyita- 
Aelz>, i7ri(TKf)7TT€(r6ai (dat. of pers., gen. of thing) ; also, ^evyeiv 
(to be accused) and dXcovca, to be convicted, with gen. of thing 
only ; as, r ov -%P °" v ov y^p ov <fi 6 o v co ; y p a (ft e o~6 a I riva 
TTapavoficov (to prosecute one for illegal measures) ; KpLve- 
o-6ai acrefieias. So, also, the adjectives eW^o? and wtu- 
6wos, liable to, chargeable with, guilty of ; but in the sense 
devoted to, evoxos takes the dative. 

Rem. 11. As Kara in composition regularly takes the gen. of the 
person, verbs of judicial proceeding, when compounded with this prep- 
osition, take the person in the gen., and the charge, crime, etc. in the 
accusative; as, kcu tcdv aWcov de ficopiav Karrjyo pel . Some- 
times, too, with some verbs of this class, an accusative of the kindred 
idea or its attribute is found instead of the gen. of the thing ; as, o era 
pkv rts alridral riva tovtcdv, whatever accusations any one brings 
against any one of these. Two genitives, also, are sometimes found 
with Karnyopelu. 

Rem. 12. The fine or punishment, also, is sometimes put in the 
gen. (especially Bavdrov) with the above verbs, the fine being consid- 
ered as the equivalent of the offence, and hence, strictly, the gen. of 
price ; as, Bavdrov Kplveiv, etc. 

§ 54. Genitive of Mutual Relations. 

1. Adjectives in the comparative, and in the positive when 
they have a comparative force, as is the case especially with 
numeral adjectives in -da-tos, -ttXovs, and devreoos, etc., varepos, 
7T€pio-o-6s, bis rocros, etc. ; also, other words denoting difference 

(as, BicKpepeiv, did(j)€pos, aWos, dXXolos, dXhorpios, erepos, evavrios, 

€fjL7ra\iv) take the gen. of that with which the comparison is 
made, as expressing a mutual relation with the subject 
of the comparison (i. e. each implying the other) ; as, 6 vlos 
fi€ i £<ov Zo~Ti t ov Tzar p 6 s ', r p lttX d o~ iov KCKpa^op-ai o~ ov ; 

Ol)§€ VOS dtVTCpOS ', OV$€P d lCL<p € p € IV TO. €T€pa TCOV €T€p(OV. 

Rem. 1. Instead of the gen. after comparatives and comparative 
words, the comparative particle jf, with the same case after it as be- 
fore it, is often used ; as, d L7r\r) o~i a vkp.ovrai k k ar e p co tcl noma 
rj rol o~ l aXXoLO-L (see § 50, 6) . So, also, the neuter comparatives 
7r\eov, 7r\euo, %\arrov agreeing with a noun (or ifkeov, p^elov used ad- 



§ 54.] THE GENITIVE. 149 

verbially) are followed by numerals in the same case with tj ; as, 
err] yeyovcos tt\ € i co efidopyKovra, having lived more th seventy 
years (lit. having lived severity years more). 

Rem. 2. Where we say not greater or less than any ■ **ng, the 
Greek says, greater or less than none; as, pnftevos /xelfo, , ovdevos 
fjrrov, etc. 

Rem. 3. For the superlative with the gen., see § 50, 1C and R. 7. 

2. Verbs of superiority, surpassing, prominence, eminence, 
and their opposites, inferiority, submission, posteriorly, imply 
a comparison, and hence take the gen. of the obp-ct with 
which the comparison is made; such as, rrpoexeiv, 

VTT€p<pEp€LV, 7TpO(p€p€LV, V1T€p(SdX\€LV, V1T€p^ €f ' V ') 7T€piylyV€CT$m, TT€piel" 

vai (npcDTeveiv poetic), dpicrreveLV, KpaTiorreveiv, Ka\\io-T€vziv r VTrarev- 
etv, 7rp€o-(3ev€LV, diacfiepziv, /3aXXeiz> ; f]TTao~6ai, peiovcrdai. yviKau-Qai 
poetic), vo-repelv, vo-repi^eiv, vcrrepov eivai, Kp artier 6 at., iXarrov- 
crdat, peioveKTclv ', as, rols ottXols av r co v v it € p(p e p o p.ev ', 

7Tp€0~(3€V€LV TCOV IT O X X CO V IT 6 X € CO V . 

3. Also verbs of being superior to, being lord over, govern- 
ing, take the implied opposite, viz. that which is gov- 
erned, in the gen. Such verbs are Kvpuvau, KOLpavelv, deenro- 
Cew, rvpavvelv, rvpavveveiv, crTpaTnytiv, crrparnXarelv, lirLrpoTrtvzLV, 
dvdcrcreLv, alcrvpvdv ySepiaTevetv poetic), fiacrikevtiv, €tvltcltt€LV (sel- 
dom), apytiv (dpxzveus poetic), eTTio-Tarziv, ornpatvetv (tcpalveiv 
poetic), fjyepovtveLV, rjye'io'Qai, xopr)ye7v, Kparelv, etc.; as, Kpat- 
vei (TTparov; icrarpaTreve avrco r fj s x cop as (governed 
as satrap for him). Also the adjectives lyKparrjs and aKpaTrjs. 

Rem. 4. Some of the verbs in both this and the preceding para- 
graph govern the ace. sometimes, being taken in a proper transitive 
sense (as Kpareiv, in the sense to conquer) ; and many verbs meaning 
to govern take the dat., especially in the early writers, the sense being 
to act the king to, give commands to, be a leader or guide to, etc. 
This is particularly the case with dvacro-eiv, (Bao-ikevetv, iTTio-Tarfiv 
(almost invariably), crnpaivetv, Oepuorreveiv, rjyepoveveiv, and rjyelcrdaL 
(see §59, 4). 

4. Verbs of shooting or aiming at a mark, real or imagi- 
nary, also of failing, missing, being deceived in something, 
take the gen. of that aimed at, as the correlative notion ; 
such as to^€V€lv (sometimes with Kara), dKovrl^iv, o-Toxd^crdat^ 

13* 



150 THE GENITIVE. [§ 54. 

(SdWciv (with ace. in the sense to hit), tivai, TLTvo-KeoSai, apapTa- 
veiv, (T<pa\\€(r6ai, yp-evdecrOai, etc.; as, AvTopedovTos clkov- 
r icr € dovpl (fxieivco ; r ov f) 5 e o s (rro^d^eraL^ y v co p,n s dpi- 

(TTT]S f)/JLdpT7]Ka. 

Rem. 5. So, also, the adverbs evdv, ISvs, p^xpts, and (ixpts, which 
mean straight for or up to a mark or limit, take the gen. of the limit ; 
as, Wvs vt]gov, straight to the ships. 

5. Verbs of striving after, reaching after, and obtaining 
take the object striven after in the gen. Such verbs 
are iTreiyGaOai, oppdv, oppdcrdai, e7rt/3d\\eo-#at, iiraifra^uf {io~o-v- 
pevos Epic) ; i(pi€0-6at, (sometimes with ace), imTpetyeoSaL (crTpe- 
<j)€oBai and peTao-TpecpeaOat poetic), lTYLTp£iT€o-6ai, tTufiareveiv ; €ttl- 
paiecrOai, opeyeoSat ; \ayxdvetv (seldom), rvyxdvecv, Kvpelv, Tvpoo-j]- 
K€L ypoi twos) ; as, TTOvrjpov twos 77 alo~xpov epyov e(f)Leo-6ai', 
Tvy %dv e iu xp T} paTcov. 

Rem. 6. But \ayxdvew, Tvyxdvew, and Kvpeiv in the sense to find, 
meet with, gain, generally take the accusative. 

6. Verbs of meeting with, approaching, which imply a striv- 
ing or reaching after something as an aim, take that object in 
the gen. ; such as dvTav (to meet, partake of enjoy), viravTav, 
diravrdv, dvTidv, dvTi$o\r\o~ai ; Trekd&iv and TreXd^eoSai, ifSncrid^w, 
€fJL7re\d£€o-0a.L, eyyifcw, etc. ; as, clvtclv p,dxns ', ireXdo-ai veoov. 

Rem. 7. When these verbs have only the simple notion of meeting 
or drawing nigh to they take the dat., which is the common construc- 
tion of vnavTav and viravTid^eiv in Attic writers (see § 59, 2). 

7. Verbs of remembering, reminding, and forgetting take a 
gen. (but sometimes the ace. in a more strictly transitive 
sense) of the related idea of the person or thing re- 
membered or forgotten; such as p.ipvr\o-Ktw, pipvf)o~Ke- 
o~6ai, pvqpov€V€iv, pvaaQai \ \av6dveo~6ai, ImXavOdveo-Bai (\rj6eiv 

poetic, \n6dveiv, to cause to forget, Epic) ; as, pvrjo-aTo yap 
TraTpos", tov p.eu (pSovov i 7re\ eXn ctt o . So also the cor- 
responding adverbs \dOpa, \a6pal<os % and Kpvcpa. 

Rem. 8. Those verbs of this class which have a causative meaning, 
as to cause to remember or forget, to remind, may take with the gen. 
an ace. of the person reminded, etc.; as, vnepvYjo-ev re 

€ 7Ta.Tp6 s • 



§ 54.] THE GENITIVE. 151 

8. Words expressing relationship, connection, dependence, 
equality, contraposition, and community in (and their con- 
traries) take the gen. of the related object. Words of 

this kind are kolvos, 'lo-os (lo~6poipos poetic), avriTraXos (dvrWoyyos 

Pind.), IcTOppOTTOS ; OflOLOS (SfXaVVfJLOS poetic), 6{l€(TTlOS, 6fJLO(TToXoS, 

7Tpocr<p€pT]s ', eirix^p^os, (fiiXos, ftiddoxos, $ov\os, <xk6Xov6os, e£r)S, i(p€- 
£rjs ; crvvepyos, crvvrpcxpos, (TVftffivfjs, avvr)6r)s, crvyyci'rjs, <rvp,y\rr]tf)os, 
£vp,(jxDi>os, £vp,(f)vros ((TVfKpopos poetic), (Tvvvofios, dde\(f)6s (evuofxos 
poetic), evflcos, €Tpo<fios, Kkrjpovofie'iv ; as, eVrt 6"e ravra SfMola rov 

f H(f> alarr ov ; tovtcdv ef^s, after these things; K.\rjpovo~ 

p. overt rrjs v p,€Te pas dotjrjs. 

Rem. 9. "icros, kolvos, and 6p.o1os more commonly take the dat., 
and igfjs and efagrjs often do. Also ddeXcfros, dovXos, (piXos, SlclSo- 
Xos, and some others, take the dat. (§ 59, 2 and 4) when they are 
used more strictly as adjectives, in the sense like to, serving, friendly 
to, etc. The verb KXrjpovofjieiv takes also the gen. of the person, when 
the person is named ; as, os y€ KeK.Xr]pov6p,r)K.as /xei> rcov &iX(ovos 
Xprj fiaToov. In later Greek, the ace. of the thing inherited, and 
even of the person, is found with this verb. 

9. Verbs of beginning something, and of ceasing and stop- 
ping, take the gen. of the thing begun. Such verbs are 
apytw, apx^crdai, vtrapyziv, Karapx^v^ ££dpxcw ', Xrjyeiv, irav^aBai 
(ttovciv with acc. pers. and gen. of thing), rik^vrdv, Xcoobdv 
(sometimes with acc. of person, also), %x €iv ( to sto p)-, dvairvelv 
(to rest, cease from) ; as, pLoXrrrjs e £ a p ^ e c *> , to begin a 
song; ovde nav verai x^ou, nor will he cease from 
anger, 

10. Verbs of buying and selling, exchanging and barter- 
ing, also verbs and adjectives of valuing, ^Inke a gen. (often 
with dvTi, or else irpos and the acc, with verbs of exchanging) 
of the object bought, etc. (called genitive of the price). 

Such words are oweur&u, dyopdfciv, TTpiacrdai, KrdaOai, irapaXapL^d- 
v<ziv, 7TG)AeZi>, dirohihoo-Bai, Ttzpihihoo-Qai, hihovai ', dp.€i(3€LP 1 aficifieo-OaL, 
aXXdrreiv, Xveiv, etc. ; ripxiv, TifidoSat, noelcrBai (with 7roXXov, oXlyov, 
Or 7T€pl and the gen.), d^iovv, a^iovoSai, diza^iovv, a£ios (d£i(os), 

dvd^Los ; as, epcopai 6tt6 aov ttcdXtj (may I ask at what price 
he would sell it ? ) ; ZXvo-ev drroivaiv, he released them for 



152 THE GENITIVE. [§ 54. 

a ransfom ; fioos citjios, worth an ox; npav ra4 (or nvd) 
tivos, to fine one something. 

11. The verbs eluai (which is often understood in this con- 
nection) and yepeaBaL in the sense to belong to, pertain to, etc., 
and adjectives denoting sacred to, peculiar to, suitable to 
(as tcW, oUelos, Kvpios, lepos, TrpeTTcov), take the gen. (sometimes 
with TTpos, on the part of, belonging to, in connection with dvai) 
of the possessor or that to which the thing belongs or 
is peculiar, etc. (called the possessive genitive); as, to v. 
2 (ok par ov s noWr) rj v dperr), much virtue belonged to Socrates; 
iavTov tlvai, to be his Oicn master ; diKalov ttoXltov Kpii/co 
(I take it to be the part of a just citizen, euro* being under- 
stood) ; 7roXXo€ xP°' V0V to-Ti, it is an affair of a long 
time; ol be ku>$vpqi t cb v ityeo-Tr) kotcdv I'Sioi, but the dangers 
belong to the leaders. 

12. As space is the necessary condition of an action, and is 
always implied in it, we find the gen. of the place in various 
expressions, and of the way with verbs of motion, chiefly in 
poetry, and the latter chiefly in Epic poetry (called the geni- 
tive of place) ', as, ve<fios S* ov (fralveTO 7rdcrr]s yairjs ovd' 
opecov (a cloud did not appear in all the earth or mountains) ; 
Beeiv 7reS to to, to run through the plain ; thai rov 7rp6cco, to go 
forward (68ov being understood). 

13. In like manner, also, time, as a necessary condition of 
an action, is often expressed in the gen. (sometimes with prep- 
ositions to define it more closely) both as a point and as a 
space (called the genitive of time)', as, ovKen rod Xonrov 
irao-x oi ^ v av KdKCQS (for the future) ; ravra oXiyov XP°' V0V 
€0~Tai TeXevfieva (in a short time) ; fiao-iXevs ov p.ay/i.rai deKa 

r]\ikp(av (within ten days, for ten days). 

Rem. 10. Here belong such genitives as eapos (in spring), Bepovs 
(in summer), x €L f JL ^ iV0S i™ winter), fjpepas (by day), vvktos, deiXrjs, 
67roc>pr)s, firjvos, iviavrov ; rov avrov, rov nporepov, £kclo~tov, apx*)?, tov 
Xolttov (in later writers more commonly conceived as mere extent of 
time, and expressed by the ace. Xolttov, to Xolttov, ra Xolttcl). 



§ 55.] THE GENITIVE. 153 

§ 55. Genitive of Position, Separation, and Privation. 

GENITIVE OF' POSITION. 

1. Adjectives of being opposite, corresponding to in posi- 
tion, being near to, take a gen. of the spot or person; 
such as clvtlos, Ivavrios, /xecroy, dvriaTpcxfios, Trapaifkiicnos ', as, 
kvavrloL eo-rav 'Axac&v, they stood opposite or before the 
Achaans. 

2. So, also, with adverbs expressing position, proximity to, 

or distance from. Such as avra, clvtt)v, durla, avriov, avTLKpv, 

anavTLKpv, Ivavriov, Karavrlov, Ivvmiov, TrpoaOev, eimpocrBev, irpOTva- 

poide ; OTTLQ-Bev, 7ri\as, 7t\t](tlov, lyyvs, avvov, iyyvSi, e.yyvrara, lyyv- 

TCLTcOf ay^L, dyxov, cr^eSoV, X ( °P^ S '> r ^ 6 > rrfKodi, €K.ds, airoTTpoOev, dno- 

irpoOi, avevOe, dirdvtvOs ; v^roOcv, KadvnepOe, cipco, Kara), vep6e> djj,(f)LS, 

e£a), euros, eaco, izkpa, irkpav ; as, rvfipov 7Tpo(rzlpnov aaaov, I 

crept up nearer to the tomb ; Oavdrov eyyvs, near to death. 

Rem. 1. ^Kvrlov, iyyvs, «7X 6 ' ^Xas, and perhaps some others, 
sometimes take the dative (see § 59, 2). 

3. So, too, with the adverbs of place, irov, irov, ttj), iroOev, ev, 
77 (tva, rrjde poetic), ovdafxov, TravTayj], Kavraypv, etc., where the 
genitive is strictly of the partitive character; as, lp.$a\fiv 
irov t?)s €K€lvq)v x <*> p a s > to make an incursion into some part 
of their country. Also with the adverbs of time, ttoXKclkis, 
7jy>GH, oyjse, dvrUa ; as, irpcot rrjs 77 p.k pas, early in the day. 

4. Also, to denote a state or moral position (in what re- 
spect) with the adverbs (also adjectives) eu, KaAa>?, juerpiW, aS?, 
ttcos, ottco?, 77, 07177, ovtcos, code, ghtcivtcds, and others, joined with 
€X€tv (rJKtiv Herod., but rare in Attic writers), and occasionally 
with dvai and KelaOai ; as, €v ttoSvv ex^Lv, to be well off as to 
the feet ; 7ra>s npos aXXr)\a rdxovs e^a, how they are re- 
lated to each other in respect to velocity. 

GENITIVE OF SEPARATION. 

5. Verbs denoting removal, separation, rising from, de- 
parture, and most verbs of motion, may take the gen. of the 
point of departure; such as dinkvai ((3aiv€iv, dvadvvai, 



154 THE GENITIVE. [§ 55. 

rpeirco'Bai, deipeiv, x^P^i X^&^Bai, dvaxd£eaBai, dXvcrKeiv, favyew, 
poetic), (p€p€iv, ayeiv, irapax^p^v, avyx^p^ (rarely), eUeiv, vivel- 
kclv, vnavio-rdaBaL, e^LaraaBaL, voa(j)i£eiv, ^copi^etv, dtopi^eiv, Sie^av, 
a7re^6ii/, etc. ; as, cos $ 6 pcov 6pco ri]v o~r]v opaipov (from the house) / 
vTToxvpt'iv rod 7T ed lo v, to retire from the plain. 

6. Verbs of beginning from, leaving off, ceasing, driving 
away from, keeping off, delivering from, deviating from, and 
adverbs which express separation from something, may take 
the gen. (sometimes with dno or ek ; and transitives may take, 
also, the ace. of the direct object) of that whence the 
motion, real or supposed, began; such as lhai, pcBUvai, 
peBUaBai, d<fii€vai [rivd twos), d<pi€o-BaL, v(fii€vai, v(pi€o~Bai, dirJvcu, 
irapikvai, irpoUo-Oai (generally aCC.), koxXvclv, eprjTveiv, elpyew, /3Xd- 
7TT6LV, e'Lpy€o~6ai, e'xew, airextw, dnexecrBai, dXaXKelv, dpvveiv (usu- 
ally with aCC. and dat.), \veiv, iXevBepovv, d7raXXdrT€LV, pveaBai, 

o-co(€lv ; as, tcov ificov /x' € I p y e i v , to exclude me from mine ; 

6<fiB a X pov dXdco o- ev avriOeov UoXvcprjpov (they deprived of his 

eye by blinding, the verb being taken in a pregnant sense) ; 

(TcoBrjvai KdKcav, to be saved from evils. 

Rem. 2. So, also, in imitation of this local separation, we occa- 
sionally find the point^whence a space of time commences in 
the gen. without a preposition ; as, devrepep ere'i rovrcov (in the sec- 
ond year from these things ; either before or after, as the case may be). 

GENITIVE OF PRIVATION. 

7. As implying a species of separation, verbs, 
nouns, and adjectives expressing the idea of being without, 
wanting, being deserted, and transitive verbs (which may take 
besides an ace. of the direct object) which express actions 
that produce a state of want, destitution, etc. of something, 
take the gen. of that of which there is a want, etc.; 

such as vTzpziv, d-iroarepelv, ^poOy, ipTjpovv (povvovp, deveaBai, \ei- 
irtcrBai, poetic), diropeiv, irkveaBai, delv, beicrBai (sometimes, also, 
gen. or ace. alone, or two genitives), Xeuretv, eXXeiVecr&H, eVt- 
XeiVeo-^at, wrtavl&iv, del and xph (generally with a dat. or ace. 
besides) ; iXcvBepos, pouos, KaBapos, icevos, eprjpos, yvpvos, 6p(f>av6s, 



5 56.] THE GENITIVE. 155 

7r£vr)s 9 yjfiXos, and most adjectives compounded with a priva- 
tive ; as, axfieXi a s Sf^eirej, needing aid ; arifxos €7rai- 
v<dv, unhonored with praises; evdeia xp 1 H JL( ^ T<0 ^^ a want 
of money. 

8. So, also, adverbs which express privation, absence, want, 

or exception from ; such as avtv, avcvOev {without), arep, arepOe, 
v6(t(J)lv, x co P ls 'i TrXrjv, §i>X a » as ? ttXtjv tov d a l /jlovos, except 

the divinity. 

§ 56. Partitive Genitive and Genitive of Material. 

PARTITIVE GENITIVE. 

1. The partitive genitive, which denotes the whole as dis- 
tinguished from its parts, in its strictest sense is only a species 
of the attributive genitive, and, like that, is governed by the 
noun which it limits. But as the noun here must be one 
which expresses a part of a whole, the partitive genitive is 
governed only by a noun expressing a part of a whole; 
as, o-co/xaroff fiepos, a part of the body. 

Rem. 1. The attributive genitive, besides the partitive use, ex- 
presses the author or cause, and the owner, possessor, or subject. It is 
possessive or objective, according as it expresses simply the cause 
or owner, or at the same time the cause and the object of 
the state or action indicated ; as, to tt)s o-o<fiias kclXXos, the beauty 
of wisdom (i. e. which belongs to wisdom as the subject or possessor) ; 
fj tt]s o-o(j)ias €7n6vfjLia, the desire of wisdom (i. e. excited by and ter- 
minating upon wisdom) . 

Rem. 2. Sometimes two genitives, expressing different relations, 
are connected with one noun ; in which case, one of the genitives 
forms a combined idea with the noun, and the other limits this com- 
bined idea ; as, Kopijs vvpifalov "Aidov, the damseVs chamber of mar- 
riage to Hades. 

Rem. 3. In like manner, as adjectives of an active meaning take 
the gen., so those derived from verbs which govern two accusatives 
may take two genitives; as, 6 eas ottvs iKoifinv evy fxaTcov 7rpo<rrj~ 
yopos, offering prayers to the goddess. 

2. The partitive genitive, also, is connected with adjectives 
(especially superlatives), pronouns, numerals, and participles 
(with the article) used as substantives; as, Ovtjtcdv yhp ou- 



156 THE GENITIVE. [§ 56. 

dels ia-Tiv evfkupav avT\p (no one of mortals) ; 77 ttXcig-tt] 777?; 

Ol €V (j)pOVOVVT€S T CO V 6. V 6 p CO 77 CO V , tllC wisC part of ilieil. 

Rem. 4. As the partitive construction is used in some cases where 
it is not required, as in the phrases, dla ^pjvaiKcov , divine of women, 
Tzorua Sedcov, etc. ; so with the distributive words 6 pev . . . . 6 Se, 
eKaoTos, eKcirepos, Tras, and aWos ciWov. etc., the noun is often in the 
same case with the part., instead of being in the gen. ; as, vcov rco 
KacTLyvqTco Kpecov rbv pev wporitras, r 6 v h e ciTipao-as ej(€L, our 
brothers (instead of of our brothers), Creon has honored one and dis- 
honored the other. 

3. The partitive gen. is used with elvai, yiyvecrdai, rlQevai, 
TtScaBtu, 77oiei<r6ai, apiOpficrOai, r)yfio~6ai, to be numbered among, 
accounted of, and any verb whose action extends to only a 
part of the object; as, top ddvarov fjyovvrcu irdvres ol aXXot r co v 

fieyia-Toav kcikcqv eunt (to be one of the greatest evils)', 
pLova-LKTjs d\ el-ov, t 1 6 7] s Xoyovs (do you refer words to music 1) ; 
gvveXeyovro t&v \L6cov (they collected some of the stones). 

4. With verbs of participating, sharing in, communication, 
community (with which, however, pkpos or polpa is sometimes 
expressed in the ace.) ; such as perex^tv, perecrri poi, didovai, 
peradtbopaL, TTpocrhihovai, TTpobibovai (rarely), biabibovai, Koivcovelv, 
KoivovcrOai, iirapxew, peraXap^dveiv, crvWapSdveiv, crvWap^dvecrdaL 
(rarely) , crvvaipeo-6a.L ; as, cat a px&v kcli r i p cov p.e t €\€iv, 
to partake of both offices and honors. 

5. With verbs of actual or imaginary contact, taking hold of, 
being in dependence on or connected icith, since the contact 
is only with a part of the object (but when the action relates 
to the whole, the object stands in the ace.) ; such as Siyydveiv, 

yj/av€LUj a.77Tecr6a.i, icfiaTTTecrSai, dpdrrecrdaL, \ap3dveiv, "Xapfidveo-Oat, 
i7rLkcipj3dv€0~6ai, dvTikapfidveo-6a.L ; e^ecrc^at, dv~ex €0 ~@ aL i Trfpte^ccrc^at 
[urxpraM poetic), yKixtvOai, eirecrOai, and avv^TrecrdaL (rarely) ; as, 
rbv he irecrovra tt o h co v e\a$€ (he seized by the feet) ; epyov 

ixupetla, let us take hold of the work; rov vopov exeo-Bai, 
to abide by the Jaw, i. e. obey the law. 

Rem. 5. In poetry, verbs of entreating, such as XicrcropciL. uceirv- 
eiv, iKvelcrSaL, etc. are used not only with the gen. yovvcov {the knees), 
but by analogy, with other genitives, since the suppliant touched the 



§ 56.] THE GENITIVE. 157 

knees of the image in making entreaties, whence the usage extended 
to other modes of making entreaties; as, aleu epe X to- ere cr Kero 
yovvoov, always entreated me by the knees; ae p erep^o/xat twv 
6 e co v , / beseech thee by the gods, 

6. Verbs of eating and drinking take the genitive when the 
idea is of eating and drinking of something, or a part of some- 
thing (but the ace. when the idea is that of simply eating or 
drinking in general, or consuming the whole). Such as io~8i- 
civ, (frdyeiv, TTivciv, yevecrdai, yevciv (ace. of pers. and gen. of 
thing, or two ace.) ; as, ia-OUtu Kpe&v, to eat of flesh; yeveiv tlvcl 
TLfjLrjs, to cause one to taste of honor (also yevew two. peSv, to 
give one wine to drink). 

GENITIVE OF MATERIAL. 

• 7. The gen. of the material (sometimes with i£ and, or hid ; 
and sometimes the instrumental dat. instead of the gen.) is 
found with verbs of making, forming, etc. ; as, x a ^ K °v ^oie- 
ovTai to, dyaXpara, the statues are made of brass; klo-o-ov 
crenels, crowned with ivy. 

8. With verbs and adjectives of filing or being full ; such 

as 7rXr)0co, TrKvpoco, 7rLp7r\rjpi, pearoco (mostly poetic), ye/ze«>, (3p[- 

Secv, vdo~o~€iv, €7TLvd(T(r€tv, <ra.TT€iv, cviropeiv, etc. ; irktos, €p7r\eos 9 

7rXr)pr)$, p€o~T6s,7r\ovcnos i dao~vs, etc.; as, tcov aTravraiv €V7roprj~ 

a- at, to be well supplied with all things; irXncrdpevos o'ivoio 

deiras, having filed the cup with wine ; dao-vs devdpcov, thick 

with trees. 

Rem. 6. Transitive verbs of this class may take an ace. in addi- 
tion to the gen., of course, and some of the verbs and adjectives, espe- 
cially (3pideLv and daavs, may take the dat. instead of the gen. 

9. With verbs of satisfying, enjoying, being satisfied or 

benefited ; such as curat, acrao-Qai, Kopeo-aaBai, dnokaveLV, diravpe- 

cr6aiy €v cox^c dai, arravpav, ovivacrdai, etc. ; as, atparos acrai Apea, 

to satisfy Mars with blood; eva>x°£ rov \6yov, enjoy the 

speech. 

Rem. 7. Verbs of enjoying sometimes take the ace. instead of the 
gen., and sometimes they take ano or Vk before the gen. The gen. 

14 



158 THE ACCUSATIVE. [§ 57. 

of material is extensively used in the earlier forms of the language, 
especially in the Epic, the primitive mind viewing materials as 
causes; as, \ovecr6ai 7roTap,o'lo, to be washed of a river. 

Rem. 8. The genitive absolute expresses the relations of either the 
causal gen., the gen. of place, or the genitive of time. For its usage 
see § 71, 3. 



SECTION II. 

THE ACCUSATIVE. 

§ 57. Verhs with one Accusative. 

1. As the accusative denotes the immediate or suffering 
object of a transitive verb, most verbs take but one ace, the 
remote or circumstantial object (when required or expressed) 
generally being in another case, or constructed with preposi- 
tions. 

2. Any verb, whether active or intransitive, may take an 

ace. of the cognate noun, and of the kindred idea, or of their 

attribute or equivalent idea (called the accusative of kindred 

signification) ; as, fjBeadai rjdovds (cognate), x a ^P €Ly ^ovt]v 

(kindred idea), p,eya (sc. xw a ) x a ' l P €iV (attribute of cognate 

noun), x a ' L P& rovro (thus) or akyiiv irpa^iv, to grieve at the 

affair, i. e. to grieve the grief suitable to the affair (equivalent 

idea). 

Rem. 1. Verbs which take an attributive or kindred notion to the 
cognate idea often receive a modified or augmented meaning beyond 
their common meaning (called the pregnant or intensive meaning) ; 
as, vLKav \Layr\v, to gain a battle by conquering ; rpoTvas Karapprjyvvvai, 
to cause routs by breaking the ranks ; a dLefiaXKes, which you slander- 
ously stated. 

3. Verbs denoting a state or feeling, whether of mind or 
body, may take an ace. of the state or feeling, or that wherein 
the state or feeling consists (ace. of kindred signification) ; 
such as verbs of being pleased, angry, envying, pitying ; 
thinking, caring, willing ; conceiving, knowing ; living, far- 
ing well or ill, dying ; condition in life, serving ; flowing, 



§ 57.] THE ACCUSATIVE. 159 

springing forth, shining ; and bodily condition, as sitting, 

falling, sleeping, etc. ; as, ovdh dclaao-a, fearing nothing (no 

fear) ; Oappeiv n or nva, to brook something or some one ; el- 

devai ttjv <fivo-iv npayfjidrcov, to know the nature of affairs 

(instead of, know the knowledge) ; x°P r )7 € ^ v Acovvo-ta, to serve as 

choregus at the Dionysiac festival. 

Rem. 2. For the gen. with some verbs of this class, see § 53, 7, 
9, and 11. 

4. Verbs of motion take the space or way passed over in the 
ace. ; and in poetry, the place or object reached by the motion 
is sometimes in the ace. ; as, p,o\e2v yecpvpav, to pass the bridge ; 
ikavveiv bpopov, to run a race ; fiaiveiv 7ro§a, to go a step of the 

foot (=r fialveiv nodos fidcriv) ; X^P^ ^ irpvpvav, he goes to the 
stern ; ao-rv Kabjxelov poXav, having come to the city of Cad- 
mus. 

Rem. 3. But in prose (and generally in poetry), the ace. denot- 
ing the limit or object reached by a motion is governed by preposi- 
tions ; as, dvd, Kara, els, rrpos, etc. 

5. Verbs of doing any thing, or performing any act, may 
take an accusative of the deed or thing done (often of kin- 
dred signification) ; such as verbs of finishing, learning, eat- 
ing, laboring, fighting, acting wrongly or impiously, uttering, 
swearing, shouting, lamenting, confessing, accusing, etc. ; as, 
Tikevrrjo-ai epya, to finish the works ; ao-Kovvres <p66vov, exercis- 
ing envy ; olvov ttLvuv, to drink wine ; prjpara elnelv, to speak 
words. 

6. Verbs of producing or effecting any thing take an ace. 
of the effect or result (often of kindred signification) ; such as 
verbs of making, inventing, creating, exhibiting, engraving, 
working, pouring, digging, etc. ; as, revxeov Bap^a, making a 
breastplate ; tlktclv t£kvcl, to bear children ; 7ra>p.a x^ 0V(Tlv t 
they pour a draught ; olvov Kepcovrai, they mix wine. 

7. Verbs of transmitting, delivering over, receiving, per- 
ceiving, possessing, holding, inhabiting, acquiring, and the 
like, take an ace. (often of the kindred signification) of the 



160 THE ACCUSATIVE. [§ 57. 

gift, payment, thing received, held, etc.; as,' 8 copa dlbcoo-i; 

8a>pa Se^ecr^at ; Idelv Seafia', navra ravra €vp6fiT)v, I 

acquired all these things. 

8. The extent of time over which an action extends is put 
in the ace. (generally without prepositions) after all classes 
of verbs ; as, eva fxrjva pevcDv, remaining one month; tovtqv 
emvov tov xpovov, they were drinking all this time. 

Rem. 4. Of this nature are the adverbial accusatives of time, rjpos, 

ivvrjfJLCLp, VVKTCCp, TTCLWXCL, (Tr]p.€pOV. ClVptOV, O.KfjLl']V , CtpX^V, 7T€paS, TeXoS, 

to TeXevToiov, vkov, evayxos, TTpoTepov, to npaiTOV, to irpiv, to clvtikci, 
to 7rdXai, rcop^aToi/, Katpov, irp&TOV, to Trakaiov, to Xoittov, to IqoBivov, 
heCkivov, vo~T€pov, ttclvvo-tcltov , i^amva, brjpov, elvdwx €S > elvdeTos, €tos, 
els €tos, and the like. 

Rem. 5. When the time is in the gen. it is regarded as the cause 
or antecedent condition of the action ; as, tovto iykvtTo TavTns ttjs 
f) fjiepas (on ths day, the time being considered as a necessary -con- 
dition of the action). See § 54, 13. 

9. Quantity or amount of space, time, distance, value, 
weight, etc. is put in the ace. (generally without a prepo- 
sition) after all verbs susceptible of such an object ; as, XeineTo 
dovpos ipar]v, he left an intervening space of the distance of a 
spear'* s cast ; e7rop€vo-a.To dvo o-Tadiovs, he proceeded two stadia ; 
ovdenco t'lKoviv %tt) yeyovcos, not yet having lived twenty years; 
ZXkovto. TpiTov TjfiLTaXavTov, weighing a talent and a half (also 
with the cognate o-Ta6p.6v, the weight of a talent and a half). 

Rem. 6. Here, also, belong- the adverbial accusatives, noXXd 
(often), tcl noXXd or cos to. noXXd (for the most part), ttoXv, 7toXX6v, 
peya, fieydXa, ^eyicrra, oXiyov, piKpov, jiiKpd, av^vd, fxaKpd, 'lcov, to- 
ot ovto, oaw, ivdvTa, to Ittitvov, adrjv, ayynv, etc. 

10. The accusative (properly of the equivalent idea) is used 
after adjectives and intransitive and passive verbs of all kinds, 
but particularly those which denote quality or feeling, to de- 
fine their meaning more closely, or to denote in what respect 
it is taken (called accusative of nearer definition, or by synec- 
doche)-, as, icdfjiveiv tovs 6<f)6a\fiov s (as to the eyes, in the 
eyes) ; 8eivo\ pdxrjv (in battle). Also, ofteji with the verb 
tlpl, a quality pertaining to some place or relation is expressed 
by such accusatives as eupos, vyf/os, peyeOos, fidOos, firJKOS, 7t\tj6os, 



§ 57.] THE ACCUSATIVE. 161 

dpiOpov, yevos, ovopa, pepos, irpocfiacrLV, to d* akndes, yvtapnv iprjv, 
etc.; as, ye v os (in race) e<ov QiyaXevs; Kepo-os ouofia (byname). 

Rem. 7. The ace. of the part affected or concerned seems to be of 
this nature ; as, ^X^-yeis- tyju icecfraXrjv, struck on the head. 

Rem. 8. Here, also, belong certain neuter accusatives denoting 
some particular case or way in which any verbal notion operates, and 
which from frequent usage have acquired almost wholly an adverbial 
meaning ; as, Tovvavrlov, Tavavria, raXka, Xolttou (for the rest), to d* 
o\ov, troTepov, irorepa, Odrepa, dpfyorepov (poetic), dpcpoTepa, doia 
(Epic), ovderepa, t\, tl, to, tovto (tclvtcl) pev .... tovto (raOra) 
be, tclvt cipa, 6, on, olov, are, ovdev (prjdev) tl, noXXa, iravra, to Kara 
(els, cttl) tl or Tiva ; as, e'L twos peya r/u to crcopa (pvcret rj Tpocpfj rj 
dp<poTe pa (in both ways, by both) ; to els epe, as far as pertains to 
me. So, also, the nouns Kpdros, Ta^os, p,eyeBos, prjKos, to pepos, etc. 
often have a purely adverbial idea. 

11. The accusative often stands in apposition with a whole 

sentence, expressing its substance, effect, or purpose ; as, pfyei 

dirb irvpyov, Xvypou oXeBpov, he will throw you from the 

tower, — a sad death. But when the noun in apposition refers 

more to the subject of the sentence, it is regarded as in the 

nominative ; as, e^eirvevcrev 'Ayapepivcov ]3iW, nXnyels 6vyaTpos 9 

aivxpov epyov. 

Rem. 9. Here belong, also, Tpbirov (manner), tovtov tov rporrov, 
TravTa TpoTrov, Tiva Tpoirov, dUnv, and other expressions in making 
comparisons ; also, to de (ye) peyicrTov, kol to peyicrTov, to t)e deivo- 
TaTov, kcu to betvoraTov, Ka\ to eo~x<iTov, to ye eo~xaTov, to KecpdXaiov, to 
TeXevTaiov, etc. 

12. The accusative (instead of the gen., see § 53, 8) is 
sometimes found after adjectives derived from or compounded 
with verbs ; as, noXXa kclkci gwio-Tcop, conscious of many evils ; 
Tp'iftcov to. Toidbe, skilled in such things. 

13. The adverbs of protestation pd and vr\ take the accusa- 
tive ; as, ph tov Kvva, by the dog. 

Rem. 10. Ma and ov pa are used in negative sentences, or where 
a negative is implied by the context ; vr\ and va\ pa, in affirmative 
sentences. 

Rem. 11. Sometimes an ace. stands apparently independent, but 
is really governed by some word which was in the mind of the writer ; 
as, ere t)r), ere ... . cpfjs, k. t. X. (supply Xeyo>), thee now, thee, I mean, 
sayest thou, etc. 

14* 



162 * THE ACCUSATIVE. [§ 58. 

§ 58. Verls with two Accusatives, 

1. Transitive verbs which take the accusative of a personal 
object (or some object viewed as a person), may take in addi- 
tion an ace. of the cognate noun or kindred idea ; as, dtddo-Kco 

ae, or diddcTKCQ ore ypa.pp.ara. 

2. This construction is chiefly confined to the following 
classes of verbs : — 

1) The verbs which are employed in expressions that de- 
note the saying or doing of any good or evil to one ; such as 

epydfeoSaL, irofiv, TTpdrreiv, etc. ; \eyew, elirelv, etc. ; as, TroXXa 
KciKa f] pas TToiovvTes, doing us many evils, 

2) Those used in entreating, praying, asking, etc. some- 
thing of one ; such as alrelv, alreiardai, cmairfiv, ipzorap, ipioSai, 
i^erd&iv, Icrropelv, etc.; as, alrel avrbv deica rd\avra, he 
asks of him ten talents. 

3) Those used in speaking of teaching or reminding one 
of something ; such as bihdcrKeiv, iraiheveiv, dvapipvr\o-Keiv (with 
which, however^ as well as with viropipv^a-Keiv, the gen. of the 
thing is more common), etc.; as, dMo-Kco o-e ypdppara, I 
teach you letters. 

4) Verbs of concealing and dividing or distributing into 
parts ; such as upviTTeiv {^KevSeiv, poetic), baieiv, biaipeiv, repvew, 
etc. ; as, biaipelv rbv x LT &va rpla p,epr], to divide the coat 
into three parts. 

5) Verbs of advising, persuading, challenging, compelling ; 

such as ireideiv, inoTpvveiv, iiralpziv, TvpOKaXtlo-Bai, avayKa^ziv, ^tC. ; 

as, eneiOov ovdev ovbiva, they persuaded no one of any 
thing. 

6) Verbs of depriving, taking away from, purifying, strip- 
ping, putting on and off, clothing, throwing around ; dcfraipel- 
vQai, (TTepelv, aTTOVTepeiv, crvkav, KaOalptiv, Xoveiv, v'nrT€0-6ai, €k3v€lu, 
ivbveiv, aptyievvvvai, irzpifiaKkeo-Qai ; as, rr\v Tiprjv anoo-Tepei 

fxc, he deprives me of my honor. 

Rem. 1. Some of these verbs sometimes have a different construc- 
tion from that here given, but in a somewhat different sense. Thus, 



§ 59.] THE DATIVE. 163 

when the person is in the dat., the additional idea is implied of its being 
for the advantage or disadvantage of the person ; so the gen. of the 
person or thing after crrepe'ivy dnooTepelv, and d<fiaipe'i(r6aL implies 
rather a separation (see § 55, 5) than a simple deprivation. 

3. Two accusatives, also, one a direct, and the other a 
predicative or appositional object (often an adjective), are 
used after the active or middle of such verbs as take two 
nominatives in the passive (see § 51, 3) ; such as verbs of 
making, choosing, estimating, explaining, recognizing, call- 
ing, naming, giving, receiving, teaching, etc. ; as, Traidevetv 
riva (ro<p6v, to instruct one so that he is wise ; alpelo-Bal nva 
arpaTTjyou, to choose one general. 

Rem. 2. As in the partitive construction with €Kao~ros, eKarepos, 
etc. (see § 56, R. 5), the whole is sometimes put in apposition with 
its parts, instead of in the gen., so, mostly in poetry, especially Epic 
poetry, the part often follows in the ace. in apposition with the whole, 
as a nearer definition, or the exact object; as, tvoLov ere (pvyev e picos 
oSovtcdv, what a word escaped you, viz. the inclosure of your teeth! — 
what a word escaped your lips ! 



SECTION III. 

THE DATIVE. 

§ 59. Dative of the Person. 

The dative is used of a personal object (or something 
viewed as a person) when the person is represented as shar- 
ing or interested in the action, and not as the direct object of 
it, like the ace, nor as the cause or antecedent of it, like the 
gen. Hence the dat. is commonly used after words where 
the relation may be expressed by to or for, or is similar to 
that expressed by these words. In other words, the dat. is 
used after words which express or imply a transmission to, 
community or connection with, likeness to, unlikeness to, or 
regard to. 

1. The dat. of the person is used with verbs which express 
the transmission of something to one ; such as giving, allow- 



164 THE DATIVE. [§ 59. 

ing to, granting, presenting, paying, selling, giving a share 
to, transferring, etc. ; such as 6\6\Wt, dcopelaOai, rlveiv, escort, 
fieTadidovai, dnovefieLV, etc.; as, Sidovai rl tivi\ tori p,oi or 
cijeo-Ti fioi [it is allowed me) ; pLcrahbovai rots cjiiXois, to impart to 
friends. 

2. With words (whether verbs, nouns, adjectives, or ad- 
verbs) denoting simple community or communication, or even 
meeting, approaching ; as 6/xiXeiV, fuyvvvai, koivovv, fttaXXar- 
T€iv (to reconcile to), oirivbeo-Oai ; elnelv, Xeyeiv, XaXeiV, Xrjpelv, 
irpdrreiv, evxevOai (to Speak or act with, pray to) ; drravTav, 
vwavrdv, tt\t] cria^ iv, etc. Also the corresponding nouns, adjec- 
tives, and adverbs, especially those compounded with <rvv and 
/Ltera ; such as kolvos, crvyyevrjs, vvvepyos, and (rvvaycovicrTrjS (gen. 
and dat.), avfKpcovos, fieralos ; 7r\rj(TLOs, 7re\as, ayxh an d the 
like; as, o/niXet to7s dyaBols dv6 pcoirois ', /xj) ftere^ov- 
o-cov dvdpda-i ywaiK&v, women not sharing with men ; 7re- 
Xafe firjrpi', ev^ovrci @€ols', 6 §e ravrrjs rrjs nla-recDS avra 

o-wepyos kol <r way g>vi<ttt}s, fellow -procurer and promoter 
with him of this confidence. 

3. With verbs and adjectives denoting hostile communica- 
tion, as contending, litigating, emulating, reproaching, blam- 
ing, being angry at, envying ; such as ipl&iv, pdxeo-Oai, 7roXe- 

fJL€LV, dycovi&crOai, oveibl&iv, \oihopelcrdai, €7rtTtpdv, eyKaXelv, 6vjxov m 
a6ai, ^aXe7ratVet^, (fiOovelv ; also the adjectives dvrLos, ivavTios, 

i^BpOS, 7V0\€fJ.L0S, ipTToftcdV, etC. ', aS, € pl^€ fJL€V(ll /3a(TtX^t, tO 

contend with a king ; aWois iTTLTLpicorjs ; rvpavvos anas ex&pbs 
iXevOe p la Ka\ vojjlols e vavr Los. 

4. With verbs and adjectives denoting communication as 
superior or inferior, as ordering, counselling, inciting, en- 
treating, following, accompanying, retiring, yielding, serving, 
obeying, trusting ; such as arj fiawe iv, liriTdrreiv, TTpoo-rdrTeiv, 
zvTtXktcrBai, ivapaivfiv, TrapaKekeveadai, eweo-Bai, aKokovdelv, e?K.€iv, 
vitsIkelv, x^pew* vwaKoveiv, izelOecrOai, irivTtveiv, etc. ; also the 
adjectives and adverbs aKoXovBos, aKoXovOco?, 8t,ddoxos, kiro^ivcus, 
itjrjs, ifet-rjs, etc. ; as, o-rjfialvei (fivXaKeacr i ; aWoicri drj 



§ 59.] THE DATIVE. 165 

tout sir it eWeo ; 7T€7rccrT€V kcos rots vopois ', tcov e7ro/xe- 

VCOV TOVTOLS', TCL i £ 7) S € K€ LVOLS. 

5. With words denoting likeness and unlikeness, similarity 
and dissimilarity, agreement and disagreement ; such as coute- 
z/at, e'idecrOaL (poetic), 6p.oiovv, opouos, opoicos, 1V09, tcrcor, c£ io~oi;, 
ei/ tcra), ipcfiepfjs, 7rapa7r\r)o~LOs, 7rapct7r\r)crLQi)S 9 6 avTos, apa, SpoXoyelv, 
(Twaivelv ; dtdcpcovos, Sidifiopos, and many words compounded 
with 6/-ioi), o-w, and peTa ; as, eldopevi] fei'z>G>; vpels 6e ei? 
/xej/ to airo ^/xti/ o-irevbeTe (to £Ae same place with us) ; ro^ 
6p<i)vvp.ov lp.avTco\ didfpopos to7s aWots. 

Rem. 1. Some of the verbs and adjectives introduced in the pre- 
ceding paragraphs are sometimes constructed with the gen., as may 
be seen by referring to the treatment of that case (see especially 
§§ 54, R. 9; 55, R. 1 ; 56, 4). Also, transitive verbs of the above 
classes may take an ace. of the direct object in addition to the dat. 

Rem. 2. Instead of the dat. after adjectives and adverbs of like- 
ness, comparison, etc., we sometimes find a coordinate sentence intro- 
duced by Kcii (as) ; as, ov^ Spoicos 7r€Tvoir)K.ao~i kcll "Opirjpos, they have 
not done as Homer did. Also, after taos and opouos, the dat. of the 
object is often used instead of the dat. of the attribute ; as, Kopai 
Xap'iTecrcriv opoiai (hair like the Graces, instead of, hair like the hair 
of the Graces, see § 50, R. 6). 

6. With words denoting a moral likeness or fitness, as well 
as those denoting what is pleasing, agreeable, etc., and the 
contrary ; such as irpeirciv, appoTTew, irpoo-^Ktiv (with an accom- 
panying infin.), del, xph 'i dvayKaiov, irpzirovTcos, a^penas, cIkos 
€cttc, cIkotcos ', dvhdvziv, dpecrK€iv, etc. ; as, /3aonXeI ^yelro 7rpe~ 
1T€LV ', to 7 s TavTa dpi 0~K€Tai. 

7. With verbs and adjectives of helping, favoring, benefit- 
ing, and averting ; such as, dprjyetv, dpvveiv, aXeijciv, akakKelv, 
TipcDpelv, fior)6eiv, liriKovpfiv, dirokoyeicrBai, \vcriTikeLv, eirapKeiv, 
Xpacap-elv, and many verbs compounded with o~vv ; as, o~vp<fie- 
p€Lv, <rvp7rpdTT€Lv, etc. ; also the adjectives ax^eXt/ios, xpW 1 ^ ^ 
cfiikos, etc.; as, rots Qavovvi tt\ovtos ovdev ox^eXel, wealth 
avails nothing to the dead. 

8. The dat. is used, also, with ehai and yiyveo-dai, denoting 
the person possessing, or rather having something ; as, to> 
Kvpco rjv peyakrj (Saorikela, Cyrus had a great kingdom. 



166 THE DATIVE. [§ 59. 

9. In general, the dat. is useato denote that for whose 
advantage, benefit, protection, etc. (or their opposites) any 
thing is done (called the dative of the advantage or disadvan- 
tage) ; as, &i\i(rTidr)s \ikv eirparre ^lXlttttco, Philistides managed 
affairs for the benefit of Philip ; fikairreiv tlvL So also with 
all sorts of nouns and adjectives which, from their own mean- 
ing or the context, are conceived as bringing good, harm, or 
hindrance to any person or thing ; as, x € pvw novos, labor for 
the hands. 

10. The dat. is used to denote the person (or thing viewed 
as a person) in respect to, or on whose part, or in whose 
view, wish, or desire a thing is so ; as, agios ei'7 Bavdrov rfj 

7roAet (in respect to the State) ; ere pa drj, cos eoiKe, toIs (j>v- 

\agiv evpr)KafjL€P (in the guards, on the part of the guards). 

Rem. 3. This usage with a participle corresponds very nearly to 
our mode of expression with one and a participle ; as, " to one entering 
Rome, the dome of St. Peter's is seen at a distance." But in Greek, 
this dat. is used not only with participles of going, coming, stand- 
ing and the like, but with various others with which the usage is not 
allowable in our language, especially with those denoting ivilling, 
desiring, and their opposites ; as, e'i croi fiovXopevcp eo-riv, if it is to 
you wishing = if you wish. So in the phrase cos o-vvekovn dweiv, to 
speak tike one summing up all in a ivord = to speak briefly. In this 
and other cases, both with and without the part., the cos indicates the 
private character of the view, opinion, etc. ; as, aos yepovri, for an 
old man, cos e/xot, as it seems to me; cos Ibovri, as far as one who sees 
can judge. 

Rem. 4. The dat. of the personal pronouns, especially of the first 
and second persons, is often used in this way with but little apparent 
meaning (called the ethical dative) ; as, co p-rjrep, cos koXos fioi 
6 7ra.7nros, how beautiful in my eyes grandfather is! olp.ai cro 1 eiceivovs 
tovs ayadovs tcl ire&Ka pabioos viKr)o~etv (I think, I would have you 
know) . 

11. The dative of the agent is often used with the perf. 
pass, (rarely with other pass, forms) instead of vno with the 
gen., and regularly with verbal adjectives in tos and reos (ex- 
cept in a few cases where the ace. is used, the meaning of 
the verbal being equivalent to del and the infin., and the con- 
struction, in such cases, being the same as though the idea 



§ 60.] THE DATIVE. 167 

were expressed thus) ; as, &s pot fedqXarae, as has been shown 

by me ; dcrKrjTea €(ttl crot fj dperf), OV dcrKrjTeov \-€a) icrri <toi ttjv 

dp€Tr)v, virtue is to be practised by you, or there is to be a prac- 
tising of virtue by you. 

Rem. 5. Besides the dat. of the agent, the impersonal verbal in 
rov, rkov or rd, rea governs the same case as the verb from which it 
is derived, like the Latin gerund with est ; but the personal verbal 
(as those may be which are derived from transitive verbs) agrees 
with its subject, like the Latin gerundive, and takes only the dat. of 
the agent. 

12. The dat., also, denotes the accompanying object (chiefly 
personal), either with the pronoun clvtos agreeing with it 
(meaning together with), or, chiefly in military movements, 
with verbs of going or coming, with which the force, array, 
army, men, ships, etc. stand in the dat. ; as, at vrjes idXcoa-au 
avTols dvbpdcnv {together with the men); dvex^p^o-av t<5 
a-rpara, they retired with the army. 



§ 60. Dative of the Thing. 

1. The dative of the thing denotes the cause, ground, or 
reason of an action, with all sorts of verbs and expressions, 
but especially such as denote a feeling or state of mind, the 
cause being considered rather a*s instrumental than origi- 
nating (in which latter case the gen. is used, see § 53) ; as, 
dirrjXBov ^>o/3&), they departed through fear, i. e. by means of 
fear; alo-xvvecrOai to 2 s ttctt pay p.ev ov s, ashamed at what 
has been done. So with yaiptiv, -qdeaOaL, dydWecrOai, liraipecrOai, 
Xv7reTo-#at, dXyelv, trrevd^iv, 6avp.d^iv, dyandv, dpe&icecrOai, dyava- 
/crew, x°^ €7T &s (fiepeiv, etc. 

2. The actual means or instrument by or with which any 
thing is done is put in the dat. ; as, rbv o-Kr]7TTpco iXda-aa-Ke, 
he struck him with his sceptre ; ftaXkeiv \i6ois, to throw at 
with stones; xP a(T ® aL T $ vdan, to use the water (the thing 
used being regarded as the instrument or means). 

3. The dat. is used with comparatives, superlatives, and 



168 THE DATIVE. [§ 60. 

words which imply a comparison, or distinction, to denote the 
excess, difference, or respect in which a thing differs from, is 
inferior to, or preeminent above others; as, vcrrepifriv rjpepa 
fjua> to be too late by one day ; lo-xyew r<5 o-co/xart, to be 
strong in body (in respect to the body); ttoo-I raxvs^ swift 
in respect to the feet = swift of foot, etc. 

4. The dat. is used to denote the standard according to 
which a judgment or opinion is formed, especially with verbs 
of measuring, judging, deciding, etc. ; as, o-rafyza^ei/ov rats 
X d pio- 1, judging by the gratification ; rfj i o-Otjtl reK^atpo- 
fievov, inferring from the garment ; frpiovv nva x^^ als 
dpaxpats , to fine one in (i. e. upon the basis of) a thousand 
drachma, etc. 

5. The dat. is used to denote the material, when it is not 
conceived of as an antecedent, but rather as an instrumental 
condition of the thing made ; as, dpfia xp V(T <? Ka ^ L dpyvpco 
ev ?j(TKr)Tai, the chariot is finely wrought with gold and silver. 

6. The dat., also, but chiefly in poetry, denotes the place 
of an action, but rather as its scene than the condition ; as, 
fivx^> OakdpLoio, in the privacy of the chamber. 

Rem. In prose, prepositions are generally used with the dative 
of the place. * 

7. The dat., too, denotes the time at or in which, and the 
manner, circumstances, etc. under which a thing happens ; as, 

TTj 7TpO)TTJ TjjJLepa d(f)LKOVTO e7Tt TQV TTOTdpLOV (oU the first day, 

within the first day) ; reus yvpLvoTraidLaLs, at the gymnopcedic 
festival ; Tpaje? p.iv Kkayyfj Icrav, the Trojans advanced with a 
din ; 6 avros dpi rjj y vco p. rj , I myself am of the opinion, etc. 



$ 61.] THE TENSES. 169 

CHAPTER IV, 

THE VERB. 
SECTION I. 

THE TENSES. 

§ 61. The Present, 

1. The present tense expresses a limited present, 
i. e. an action actually occurring at the time of speaking ; as, 
what are you doing 7 I am writing. 

2. It expresses an unlimited present, i. e. general 
truths, which, being always true, are always present truths; 
as, time and tide wait for no man ; God is love ; when the 
spring comes the Mrds sing. 

3. It often expresses what is past, the speaker or writer, 
from the vividness of his conceptions, viewing a past event as 
present. This is called the historical present, and is em- 
ployed in lively narrative, where the mind is so absorbed in 
the events that they seem to be present. 

4. It sometimes expresses what is future, the act being 
so firmly resolved upon, or looked upon as so certain, as to 
seem to be in process of execution, and hence present ; as, 

et <fir]<Ti tolovtov tl zivai, bei^arco, Kayco tear a(3 aiPCD [I descend, 

i. e. will descend). This is especially the case with the verb 
e?/u, the present of which regularly has a future meaning. 

5. Verbs of hearing, seeing, learning; as, anovco, 
k\vco, imvBavcc, also ahtKco, (pevyco, vlkg>, and some others which 
express an idea that is abiding in its nature, are often used in 
the present to denote what is past, but which continues to the 
present, the idea having something of the nature of a general 
truth; as, QefiicrTOKkea ovk aicoveis avhpa ayaBbv yeyovora (do 

you not hear, have you not heard, a general report). 

6. The verbs fJKa (I am present) and ot^o/xat (I am gone) 

15 



170 THE TENSES. [§ 63. 

may generally be best translated as perfects, I have come, I 

have gone. 

Rem. The present participle always refers to the time of the finite 
verb with which it is connected ; as, ravra Xeycov cnrrjkOev. 

§ 62. The Perfect. 

1. The Greek perfect (like the English) expresses not 
merely a past completed action, but its continu- 
ance in effect to the present time of the speaker, and this 
in all the modes ; as, 7re<fievy a, I have escaped and remain 
in that state = I am free. 

2. Hence the idea of the present continuance of 
an action is often more prominently expressed by the perfect 
than that of its completion ; as, riOv-qKa, I am dead (liter- 
ally, I have died). In this sense, too, the perfect often has a 
future meaning, like the present (see § 61, 4) ; as, 6'AoAa, I 
am a dead man, i. e. am sure to die, shall certainly die. 

§ 63. The Aorist. 

1 . The aorist expresses an action merely as past, 
without any implication of its continued effects or existence ; 
as, eypayj/a, 1 wrote (in time past, but wholly indefinite). 

2. The aor. often expresses customary a c t i o n , or what 
is wont to be done, which we express by the present ; 
in which case it ranks among the principal tenses ; as, ovrot 
SiaTTTvxdevTes axpB^o-av Ktvoi (have usually teen found). 

3. The dramatic writers often use the first pers. sing, of the 
aor. in dialogue to express a present sentiment or feeling with 
more energy, by representing it as already confirmed 
by experience. This happens especially with the verbs 

yvecra, i7rrjv€<ra 9 iyeXacra, ebaKpvcra, r\<j6r)v, aTiiinvcra^ and the like. 

4. So, also, instead of commanding a present action, the 
Greek sometimes uses the aor. in inquiring why it has not 
been done ; as, « ovv ovk eXegds fioi; why then have you not 
said it to me ? == say it to me immediately ! 



§ 64.] THE TENSES. 171 

5. As only the indie, of the aor. has the augment, the sign 
of past action, so in this mode alone does it express wholly 
what is past, the remaining modes expressing mostly the bare 
action, and only in certain connections what is past. 

1) The imperative expresses the bare idea of the action 
of the verb without any reference to time, and hence has 
nothing of the idea of the continuance of the action, which is 
expressed by the imper. pres. 

2) The participle expresses almost wholly a past action, 
and, joined to a finite verb which refers to the future, expresses 
the idea of the future perfect. 

3) The subjunctive expresses partly the idea of the 
simple future and partly that of the future perfect ; of the last 
only when it stands in connection with conjunctions of time 
and condition, or relative pronouns and adverbs. 

4) The optative retains the meaning of the past only 
when it is connected with a past tense ; otherwise, it refers to 
the future ; connected with av it never has a past meaning. 

5) The infinitive expresses sometimes a past action, and 

sometimes the bare action of the verb without any notion of 

time or continuance. 

Rem. The aor. corresponds nearly to the English imperfect with- 
out a periphrasis, e. g. I loved (not was loving), but may often be 
translated by the perf. and pluperf. 

§ 64. The Imperfect. 

1. The imper feet expresses the continuance of an action 
in a particular point of past time, defined or im- 
plied in the connection, and corresponds nearly to the English 
progressive form of the imperf., e. g. I was loving. 

2. Hence, in narrating past events, the imperf. is used only 
where there is an obvious continuance of action, or a 
delineation rather than a mere narration ; in other cases 
the aor. is used. In this way, according to the nature of the 
events or circumstances to be related, the one tense or the 
other is used, giving variety and liveliness to the discourse. 



172 THE TENSES. [§ 66. 

Rem. It is not, however, to be inferred from the above, that an 
action expressed by the aor. is necessarily any shorter than that ex- 
pressed by the imperfect, but merely that it is related simply as a past 
event, without any reference to its duration. That is to say, the im- 
perf. represents an action as continued, the aor. without any reference 
to its continuance. 

§ 65. The Pluperfect. 

1. The pluperfect expresses a past action as taking 
place before another past action, and continuing 
in its effects up to the time of that action; as, 
alirvkai eK€K\eivTo (had been shut and remained so up to a 
time defined in the context). 

2. But when the previous completion of an action is obvious 
from its connection, and is not to be particularly marked, but 
only its simple antecedence to another action, the pluperf. is 
not generally used, but the aor. in its stead ; as, eVet^ de 
b i e fin <rav (to. SpLa), 7Tpoa"qvx ovTO civOls Oeois, ichen they jpassed, 
instead of, when they had passed. 

§ 66. The Future. 

1. The first and second future, commonly called the 

simple future , expresses the futurity of an action, but 

without defining at what time in the future it will 

take place; as, 6dyf/co rbv aSeX(/)oV, I will bury my brother 

(but whether immediately or after some hours or days is left 

undetermined). 

Rem. 1. After an historical tense the fut. may be translated by 
should, would, etc. 

2. The periphrastic future, formed by fiiWco with 
a pres. or fut., and occasionally, an aor. infinitive, correspond- 
ing to the Latin fut. part, with sum, expresses the immedi- 
ate future, since it represents an action as on the point 
of being done, or as destined immediately to 
take place; as, v/xas /xe'XXa) ay civ els &a<riv (I am on the 
point of leading you). 



§ 67.] THE MODES. 173 

3. The third future, or future perfect, expresses 

the antecedent completion and continuance of an 

action in the future; as, ttcis 6 Trapcbv <po(3os XeAvcre rat, all 

the present fear will have been removed and remain so ; nearly 

== will be removed, but more emphatic. 

Rem. 2. To express the same idea in the active, the future ecrofxai 
with a perf. part, is used. But this is not of very frequent occur- 
rence ; as, Tvapa rovTcdv diKrjv € l\r) <fi 6t e s ecreaSc (lit. you will be 
having received, you will have received, you will receive). 

Note. The pres., the perf., and the fut. are called principal or 
leading tenses, the imperf, the pluperf., and the aor. historical tenses. 
But the historical present belongs to the subordinate tenses, and the 
aor. employed to express general truths (see § 63, 2), to the leading 
tenses. 



SECTION II. 

THE MODES. 

§ 67. The Indicative. 

1. The indicative of all the tenses is used to express 
ideas and interrogatories exhibited as realities or facts. 

2. The Greek, unlike the Latin, always uses the indie, and 
not the subj., in indirect or dependent questions ; also in 
causal, explanatory, and objective sentences (introduced by 
on, a??, 07tg)?), when they limit, or depend upon, a verb in the 
leading clause which is in one of the 'principal tenses ; as, 
fidde avT&v, rives eloriu (indirect question) ; ivvofiv xph T °vro \xkv, 
yvvalx oti e<pvfi€v (objective) ; ovb* ottcos air eBavev ovdels 
eXzyev. 

3. But when these sentences depend upon or limit a verb 
in an historical tense, the optative is often used (for which see 
under the optative) instead of the indie. ; still the indie, (par- 
ticularly of the pres. and fut.) is not unfrequently found here 
also. So, too, even in oratio obliqua, a relative sentence 
dependent on a verb in an historical tense, and forming an 
actual part of the reported discourse, generally has its predi- 

15* 



174 THE 3I0DES. [§ 67. 

cate in the indie, where in Latin the subj. is always used ; 

as, Kal evSvs e/3oa, on ftaatXevs epxerail ol 6° e\eyov, on nepl 

ctttovDcov tJkol€V avdpes, olrives lkclvoI t ctout at ra Trapa j^acriXecos 

rols ¥XXtjo~iv arrayyeTXat. 

Rem. 1. Relative sentences are introduced either by some case 
of the relative (or correlative) pronouns 6s, ootls, olos, Snows, Soros, 
6noo-os, or by the relative adverbs denoting where, whence, whither, and 
as; as, ov, 68ev, ol, f], wj, cocrTrep, cocrre, ottcos, etc. 

4. After verbs signifying to care, to effect, to see, or take 
care {that), the subordinate sentence with ottcos (expressing a 
'purpose or object) has its predicate in the fut. indie, where 
the Latin uses ut with the subj., such sentences being really 
indirect questions. But sometimes the subjunctive or the op- 
tative with av (for which see under the optative) is found after 

these verbs ; as, ottcos vpels epe £tt aiv e o-ere , epol fie\r)o~€L. 

5. The indie, is also used after conjunctions or adverbs of 
time, in all sentences which express a definite reality 
or fact; as, Kal ravra £ttolovv, pe^pi ctkotos eyevero (the 
reference being to the actual coming on of darkness) ; crxedov 
d* ore ravra rj v , Kal tJXlos idvero. 

Rem. 2. The conjunctions of time are : ore, oirore, r\viKa, corre- 
sponding to the Latin eo tempore quo, quando (in the time in which, 
when), or the temporal cum (quum) ; oo-cikls, ottoo-clkls, quoties, cos, ut 
temporal ; ecos, tare, pexpi, "XP^ ocfypa (poetic), usque ad ilium tempus 
quo, donee and per illud tempus quo, than; iirci, eVeiS^, eVet re (Ion.), 
post id tempus quo, postquam and postea, cum, in which sense cos is 
also used ; irplv, ante id tempus quo, antequam, priusqua/n. 

6. The conjunction irplv, however, is used only with the 
indie, of an historical tense, and this, of course, only when an 
actual past event is spoken of; as, ov Trp6o-6ev Irrava-avro ttoXc- 

povvres, 77 p\v €7roir]o~av Tracrav rqv tt6\iv SpoXoyelu AaKe8atp.ouLOvs 
Kal avrcov rjyepovas dvai (before they made, until they made, re- 
ferring to an actual matter of fact). In all other cases, either 
the infin., or the subj. or optat. either with or without oV, is 
used with irplv, which will be further treated of under these 
divisions. 

7. When relative, conditional, and temporal sentences (es- 



§ 68.] THE MODES. 175 

pecially the latter) refer to something in the indefinite present, 
they do not have the indie., but mostly the subj. with av (for 
which see under the subj.). It is very rare, too, that the 
indie, fut is used in temporal sentences, and only when some 
particular action is referred to, which is looked upon as cer- 
tain to occur. 

8. It follows, also, from the nature of the indie, that it is 
used in sentences' expressing a consequence or result (i. e. 
those introduced by wore, rarely w?, not used in their relative 
sense) only in reference to a result actually occurring, or 
which has actually occurred, and not merely conceived of; 
as, kcll yiyvercu toctovtov fxera^v rcov arparevficiTcov, cocrre rfj {jcrre- 
paLCt ovk. i (pavrj crav oi 7ro\ep.iOL f crude rrj rpirrj. 

Rem. 3. The infin. with cocrre will be found under the section on 
the infin. For the indie, in conditional sentences, see Sec. III. For 
the indie, in sentences expressing a wish, see Sec. IV. For the 
indie, of an historical tense with av, expressing repeated or customary 
action, see § 73, 3, 2). For the very rare use of the indie, in senten- 
ces expressing an aim or purpose (final sentences), see Sec. V. 

§ 68. The Subjunctive. 

1. The Greek subjunctive always refers to what is 
future ; hence the future tense has no subjunctive. But it 
differs from the fut. indie, in expressing a future event as con- 
tingent or merely probable, while that expresses it as a cer- 
tainty ; as, Kal irore tls elirricriv Ihcov Kara d&Kpv x* 0V(Tav \RMiy 
say, will probably say). 

2. Although this use of the subj. in directly affirming or 
denying the future probability of an event is quite limited in 
independent sentences, even in Epic Greek, and in the later 
forms of the language was supplanted by another form of 
speech (for which see § 69, n.), still this is its meaning in all 
cases where it occurs, in dependent as well as independent 
sentences. 

Rem. 1. Before enumerating these cases it should be stated that 
the particle (modal adverb) civ which accompanies the subj. does not 
materially alter the meaning of the sentence, but only increases the 
idea of contingency or conditio nalily expressed by the subj. 



176 THE MODES. [§ 68. 

3. The subjunctive, without av, is used (mostly in independ- 
ent sentences) : — 

1) As the so-called deliberative or interrogative 

subjunctive, when one expresses his secret doubts what 

he ought to do, and throws himself, as it were, on the advice 

of those around, though the decision necessarily depends upon 

himself. Such questions would naturally be mostly in the 

first person; as, 770)? ovv pd^copai Bvvtos cov Beta tvjqj ; — cpcopev 

ovtcos rj pr) cfi co p,e v ; 

Rem. 2. This appeal to the opinion or desire of those present is 
expressed more emphatically by the addition of /3oi;Aei. /3oi'\ecr£e, or 
BeXeis, BeXere. Hence, while dpa fiovkecrBe rovro pt Trotelv, means, 
do you wish that I should do this 1 povXecrOe to b\ov irpdypa dcpcopev, 
means, shall ice give up the whole thing ? would you? 

2) As the so-called ad hortative subjunctive (where 
we use let, let us), which is generally in the first person (rarely 
in the second or third), and often with the introductory words 
Wi, aye, ayer6 y <fiepe, which make the appeal little less than a 
command; as, pdBcopev (let us learn, we should learn); 
(f)ep\ &> t€Kpov, vvv Kai to ttjs vrjcrov pdBrjs (would you ICOTn J = 

see that you learn). 

3) As the so-called d e h ortative or prohibitive sub- 
junctive, used mostly in the first person plur. and the sec- 
ond person sing, and plur., rarely in the third person, and still 
more rarely in the first person sing., and in all these cases, 
except that of the first person plur., only in the aor. tense. 
The negative here is pr] (p-qbiv, prjhzis) : as, « feiwi, pi) Brjr 
ddiKTjdco (that I may suffer no wrong, let me suffer no wrong) ; 

aXX' ovv it po pr]vv o~r]s y€ tovto prjdevl Tovpyov, you at least ICO 111 d 
not inform of= do not inform of 

4) As the so-called subjunctive of anxiety or fear, 
which is affirmative with pr), asserting the existence of a fear, 
and negative with ov pi], denying its existence ; in the latter 
case in all persons (commonly of the aor.), in the former, 
which is of rare occurrence in any person, no examples are 
found of the third person of the present ; as, pr) dypoiKOTepov rj 



§ 68.] THE MODES. 177 

(let it not be too uncivil = I fear it may be thought too uncivil) 

to d\r]6es elireiv ; ov o~€ prj 7rpo5o5, do not fear that I shall betray 

you. 

Rem. 3. As will be seen, there is implied in both affirmative and 
negative sentences of this kind a verb expressing the idea of fear, 
care, or anxiety, which is occasionally expressed, and in this case the 
present is used as well as the aor., and in all persons; as. evXaftov 
(fear, beware) pr] (pavfjs K.aK.6s yeycos 1 . 

4. The subjunctive is used, rarely with av, in senten- 
ces denoting an aim or purpose ; as, \e£ad\ cb s* eldS rb ndv ; 
tovt avro vvv dldaorxi o it co s av €Kpdd co . 

5. The subjunctive is used, generally with av, in rel- 
ative sentences; as, ovs civ oi deol nepl ttX^lcttov wolcdv- 
t a i , Sclttov CLTraWaTTOVCTL tov £rjv. 

6. The subjunctive is used, almost wholly with av, in 
temporal sentences, so much so that av is generally 
united with the temporal conjunction into one word ; making 

orav, oiTorav, tjvlk av, ecos civ, ear av, a^pis av, uexpis av, eTreiddv, 
€7TT]V (rare), irpiv av', o(ppa av, evr av (poetic) ; as, ivvoeW\ 
orav 7ro p 6 tjt € yalav, cvaeftelv to. npos Seovs ', £o~6\6v Ka\ to re- 
TVKTai, 6t ayyikos dicripa e I d r\ . 

7. The subjunctive is used in the conditioning part, called 
the protasis, of conditional sentences, almost wholly 
with av (which, contracted with the conditioning el, becomes 
lav, fjv, rarely av) ; as, edv $ airf) tovtcov to %aip€iv, rdAX eyob 
Kairvov o-Kias ovk av irpiaipT]v dvBpl rrpos ttjv fjdovfjv. 

8. The subjunctive in these last three cases generally ex- 
presses an assumed or probable future idea, or general thought 
or truth, and >vhen this idea appears, as antecedent to that of 
the principal clause, it is in the aor. subj. The verb in the 
principal clause must be in one of the principal tenses ; as, ov 
Xpr) /xe cvdevfe aneXOelv, it p\v av h £> dUrjv, it is not proper for 

me to go hence, before I shall give satisfaction. 

Rem. 4. The av is sometimes omitted by the poets when it would 
be used by prose-writers, but without changing the sense ; as, dprjyeT, 
ear* eyeb poXco Ta(j)ov peXrjBels tg>8c ; dvbpi tol xpeobi/ p,vr]pr)V Trpocrti- 
vac, TepTTvbv ei (instead of idv) tl irov ndSr}. 



178 THE MODES. [§ 69. 

9. In the like cases to those above, when the verb of the 
principal clause is in an historical tense, in direct discourse 
the optative without avis uniformly used in place of the_ 
subj., and in indirect discourse (oratio obliqua), partly the 
subj. with av and partly the opt. without av ; as, ol 
TTaibes fxov fierel^ov, oacov iyco ifravoifii \ ol S' eXeyov, on ra pev 

TTpOS fJL€CTT)fJLppLaV TTJS €7rl Ba(3vX<bva e'lT] KOL Ml]diaV, SY f)0~TT€p 

fj ko l e v ; el yap tl ttlo'tov icrnv Ik xP r )°~ Tr lp' L(liV '> ° * s av o~v 
7T p o cr Btj , toIot& eipcurK civai Kpdros ; VTreo-x^Q-Be avrois rore cmiivai, 
orav ra diKaia e^ao-iv ol o-TpaTLcorat. 

§ 69. The Optative. 

The optative expresses the same uncertainty and inde- 

terminateness of an impending action as the subj. does, but 

with reference to an historical tense, instead of a principal 

tense, answering to the past tenses of the potential mode in 

our language. Hence the optative may be called the subj, 

of the historical tenses, which it regularly follows in 

the subordinate clause, and corresponds to in its inflectional 

endings. 

Rem. 1. As a substitute for the subj. the optative retains the same 
reference to the future as that mode has. But it has the same time 
as the verb of the principal clause, where it is used in place of the 
indie. , as it often is in order to give a clause a closer dependence upon 
the leading clause, giving it more decidedly the form of indirect dis- 
course ; as, 7]p<jL>Toov ere, rls ovros icrriv (who is he? but changed to 
the optat. e I r\ , who he could be) ; eXe^ev 6 ayyeXos, ore 6 Kvpos rjXdev 
(or eXSoi, with the same difference as above). 

I. The optative without av in subordinate sentences, 
closely dependent upon a past tense (see the preceding Rem.) 
or an opt. in the principal clause is used : — 

1. In sentences denoting a purpose or aim (for examples 
of which see Sec. V.). 

2. In relative, temporal, and conditional sen- 
tences : — 

1) After the indicative of an historical tense, in 



§ 69.] THE MODES. 179 

which case the subordinate sentence does not generally denote 
a single definite action, but one always recurring under cer- 
tain circumstances, and hence, generally, repeated ; as, kcu ovs 
fxev lb 01 evraKTcos, irpocreXavvoav avrols, rives re elev rjpero, kcu enel 
TzvdoiTo, €tttjv€l (whomsoever he saw — as often as he saw 
any .... when he learned = as often as he learned). 

2) Temporal sentences take an optative after another 
optative; as, ovrcos t) dvdpcoTrtvr) cro^ici ovbev p.dXXov olde to 
apio-Tov alpeio~dai, rj el KXrjpovpevos on Xd^ot rovro tls 7T parrot 

{what he should obtain by lot, this should do). 

3) In the oratio obliqua, when the relative, temporal, or 
conditional sentence is viewed as a part of the indirect or 

reported discourse ; as, ecpt] etvcu aKpov, b el p.i) ns 7TpoKaraXrj- 
y\roiro, dbvvarov earecrdai TrapeXBelv. 

4) When a conditional sentence (and occasionally a rela- 
tive sentence) takes the optative, after an optative in the prinr 
cipal clause, both clauses express, not the reality, but the 
possibility of an event; as, rdx dv o-a^r) Xi^ciev, et vw 
7rp6s plap Kpipciv GeXois, he would soon speak the truth, if you 
should condemn him to torture; bv iroXis o-ri)o~eie (whatever 
ruler the city should appoint), rovde xpi kXvclv. 

Rem. 2. But occasionally a conditional sentence has the optative, 
while the principal clause has the indie, i. e. the subordinate clause 
expresses the mere possibility of an event, and the principal clause the 
reality of a present or future action; as, eijecrriv vp.1v, el /3ov- 
\o l(t6 e (if you should wish), Xa(36vras onXa, oidjrep rjpels exopev, els 
rov avrbv i)piv Kivdvvov epfiaiveiv. For the further treatment of condi- 
tional sentences, see Sec. III. 

3. In objective sentences after the conjunctions on, as, 

oncos, onus pr), pr), and words signifying to think, perceive, say, 

show, care, effect, fear, and the like ; as, r) de dneKpivaro, on 

fiovXoiro pev diravra rco jrarpl x a P l C €a '^ aL 5 avrol 6° ivemXovv 

epoL, a) s pdXXov /xeXot p.oi, ottcds to. o~d KaXas e^ot r) ottcds tcl 

eavrcov. 

Rem. 3. For the use of the indie, and subj. in this class of sen- 
tences, see § 67, 4. 



180 THE MODES. [§ 69. 

4. In indirect questions; as, Kai 6 'Ao-Tvdyrjs idavpaae 
yxev, rivos KeXevcravTos tjkol (wondered at whose call he might 
come ; direct question, at whose call do I come ?) 

Rem. 4. But after a verb in the present tense, such questions are 
expressed partly by the indie, and partly by the deliberative subj, 
And even after a past tense, the indie, is sometimes used instead of 
the optative. See R. 1 ; also Xen. Cyr. I. 6. 12-14. 

II. The optative with av in both independent and de- 
pendent sentences. 

1. The optative (especially of the aor. and pres., but 

rarely of the pluperf.) is often used with av to express the 

presumption or assumption that something may or will be, and 

this, too, in many cases which we should express as definite 

by the indie. ; as, ei/i/oelre, otl tjttov av ordo-is etr) [would he less, 

supposing it to take place) ivos apxovros rj 7ro\\cov. 

Rem. 5. The optative with av, both in dependent and independent 
sentences, always has a future reference, since, even in speaking of 
events which belong to the present, it does not represent them as 
realities, but only as probabilities, and hence, if ever to become reali- 
ties, to become so in the future. 

2. The optative with av is often used in independent 
sentences as a modest expression of a command or refusal, 
and in interrogatories as a icish or desire also; as, Xeyoi/x' 
av (I would speak, = give me an opportunity to speak), 6V 
rJKovcra rov 6eov rrdpa ; ovk av ivipa (f) pa a a i\xi (I will not speak 
further, = don't urge me to speak further); r\ yap yivoir* 
av (what I should like to know could be, etc.) cXkos iiei(ov rj 
<f}[\os Ka<6s ; 

3. The optative with av is used, also, in its usual sense, 
in all subordinate sentences in which the indie, of a principal 
sentence can be used, when, instead of a definite present or 
future assertion, a bare assumption or possibility is to 
be expressed, hence in objective sentences with on, &?, 
077GK, in relative sentences, and in indirect ques- 
tions ; as, ripcoTcnv €K€ivoi, cl (if, whether) dolev av tovtcov to. 
Trio-rd (indirect question) ; ovk olda, o n av ns xph (Ta, ' T0 avrols 



§ 70.] THE MODES. 181 

(relative); ev6a 8rj aireKpivaro KXedvcop, on irp6o-6ev av air o 6 a- 
voiev rj ra 07rXa tt apabolev (objective). 

III. The optative without av stands in independent 
sentences only in a wish, 

1. The wish that something may or may not happen is 
expressed by the simple optative without oV, often with 
the addition of «, el yap, eWe (Homeric at yap, aWe) ; as, a> iral, 
yivoio 7raTp6s evrvx^o-Tepos, would that you had been descended 
more fortunate from your father ! For the other modes of 
expressing a wish, see Sec. IV. 

2. A particular use of the optative with av (Epic *e, 
k£v) is found in a few cases in Homer and Herodotus, where 
it refers to the past. Homer uses it in the principal clause of 
a conditional sentence, where the Attic writers always use the 
indie, of an historical tense. Herodotus, on the contrary, uses 
it to express a presumption that something has occurred ; as, 

el [lev tls tov oveipov 'A^atoov aXXos eviVTrev, y^ev^os kcv (palfiev 
(we should have pronounced it a fabrication) ; aXka ravra fiev 
kol <j>66vcd av e'lrroiev (may have spoken). 

§ 70. The Infinitive, 

The general principle here is, thatthe Greek uses 
the infinitive with all verbs which express or 
imply the icill or the ability for performing an ac- 
tion. 

1. We may enumerate, as examples of the first class, 
verbs signifying to icill, not to ivill, to seem (to b$ willing), 
to be resolved, to be of opinio?!, to desire, to ivish, to be 
obliged, to be necessary, to advise, to dissuade, to compel, to 
cause, to be the occasion, to prevent, to ask, to forbid, to com- 
mand, to allow, to be proper or fit, to happen, to come to pass ; 
and of the second, verbs signifying to be able, to be fitted for, 
to be practicable, to be just (8Uaios), to be brought about, to be 
ready, to be determined, to venture, to learn (i. e. to become 

16 



182 THE MODES. [^ 70, 

fitted for something), to understand (i. e. to be fitted for), to 

he accustomed; as, y iy v cocr /ce TavBpcoTrtia prj (refteiv ayav ', 
evboOev array o p e v co o~ol pq KivelcrOai', a p%€cr6 a i err io~ Ta- 
ps, a t. 

Rem. 1. Of course, it is immaterial whether these ideas are ex- 
pressed by a single verb or by an adjective (often agreeing with the 
subject, where we use the impersonal form) or noun with elpl ; as, 
6 xp°v° s Pp a X^ s (*• e * t°° short, not sufficient for) dfjlcos dirjyrjcrao'BaL 
ra TTpaxOevra. So, too, the same verb would naturally have different 
constructions in different meanings. In like manner, verbs signifying 
to fear, to be ashamed, to dread, when they mean little more than to be 
unwilling, take the infin. ; as, (f)o(3ovpai dhiKelv ere. The Greek, 
therefore, uses the infin. in nearly all cases where the Latin uses ut, 
quo, quo-minus, and quin with a finite verb. 

2. As words denoting to be able, to be fitted for, take an 

infin. , so the correlatives tolovtos olos, to&ovtos Sctos, ovtco cocrre, 

which have substantially this meaning, are used with the infin., 

both in the nom. and the ace. ; as, tolovtos Io-tlv, olos ivdvTas 

els dpeTrjv 6 p fidv , he is of such a character as to incite all to 

virtue; Bkapa 8* eicro^et tolovtov, oiov Kal o~TvyovvT irroi- 

KTio-ai. But the demonstrative is often omitted, leaving the 

relative alone, in which way olov r dvai (to be able) arose ; 

also 6 tl (octop) fi elbivai (as far as I know). 

Rem. 2. For cocrre with the indie, see § 67, 8. It differs from 
wore with the infin. as follows. It is used with the indie, to express 
an actual occurrence either present or past ; but with the infin. to de- 
note that a person or thing has the requisite power to effect a certain 
action or result, so that it may happen, but not that it must ; as, rjv 
de xtcov TroWr) Kal tyvxos ovtcds, cocrre to v8cop en rjyvvTo (a defi- 
nite fact); Kpavyrju TroXXrjv iirolovv koKovvtcs dWrjXovs, cocrre Kal 
tovs noXepiovs a kov e iv , calling to each other they made noise enough 
for the eneftiy to hear them, but whether they did or not is not said. 

3. Almost uniformly, also, the infin. (rarely, if ever, except 
by the later writers, 6tl and as with the indie, or opt.) follows 
the verbs signifying to think, to believe, to suppose, to judge, 
to hope, to promise, to swear, to deny. But after verbs signi- 
fying to say, to announce, to hear, the construction with the 
infin. and with otl and co? is about equally common ; but with 
vorbs signifying to know, to perceive, the construction with the 



§ 70.] THE MODES. 183 

infin. is the least frequent ; as, en de iXiriC^ ^al <p[Xov avrbv 
fxdXXov tj/jlIv y ewq a ecrSat rj vvv ecm ; rbv KaXbv KayaBbv avbpa 
evdalfjiova elv at (j>rj fii \ e^ecrriv dp velar 6 at rois aXXois, otl ov 
7T a p Tj v . 

Rem. 3. These and similar verbs are also constructed with the 
participle, for which see § 71. 

4. While the verb ho^elv gone rally takes the infin. the simi- 
lar verb (f>aiu€o-Sai is generally constructed with the part., except 
occasionally in the passive sense 1 am believed, when it takes 
the infin. ; as, l/*oi de arv /cat ttXovt ee iv p.ev jxeya (paiveai . 

5. The infin., also, sometimes stands with the verbs signi- 
fying to endeavor, to care, to look out, effect (that something 
take place) ; but, as we have seen above, § 67, 4, these verbs 
are generally constructed with onm ; as, eT7ip.eXop.ai p,fj 
air o^wXevtraj rbv lttttov. 

6. The passive verbs XeyeoSai, dyyeXXeaSat, SfidXoyeto-Oai, and 
the like, when personal, take the nom. with the infin., but 
when impersonal, the ace. with the infin. ; as, 6 'Ao-crv pt,os 
els rrjv yjapav e p. /3 aXXe iv ay ye XX era i ; Eep^ea Xeyerai 
aKovo-avra ravra el-irai. But the passives vopi^erai, 7rio~Teveo~6ai , 
and the like, are always personal. 

7. When the infin. and the verb on which it depends have 
the same subject, this subject is not expressed before the infin. 
as it often is in Latin ; as, SpoXoyS) dpaprelv (I confess that I 
erred ; Latin, fateor me pecasse). But when this subject is 
emphatic, as in contrasts, it is expressed after the principal 
verb, sometimes in the nom. and sometimes in the ace. ; as, 
KXecov ovk e<fir] av r 6 s (or avrov), aAV eKelvov (Ni/acu/) crrpar-qyelv. 

8. So, also, where the subject of the infin. is different from 
that of the governing verb, but is expressed as an object of 
the governing verb, it is never repeated before the infin. as 
it is in Latin ; as, ovbev\ dvOpoaircov v^elpr^v dv ovre fieXriov ovre 
rjhiov epov (3epicDKei/ai (avrov, referring to ovdevl being omitted). 

9. When the governing verb and the infin. have the same 
subject, an adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle serving 



184 THE MODES. [§ 70. 

as a predicative explanation of this subject, is always in the 
case required by the governing verb (or participle) ; as, €<j)T]- 
crda KeXatvecjie'i Kpovicovi o'lrj Iv adavaTouriv aet/cea \oybv dpvvai 
(that you alone repelled); iycb pev ovx opoXoyrjcrco aKX-qros 
rj«.€Lv, d\\ % {mo crov Ke k\tj /JL6PO s (that I have come uncalled, 
but called, etc.) ; tgov (pacrKovTo^p Si/caoro3i/ eivat (here Sikootgoj/, 
though belonging to the predicate, after thai, agrees with tcqp 
(pao-KovToov, which is at the same time the subject and the gov- 
erning verb). 

10. When a predicative explanation connected with the 
infin. refers to the object of the governing verb, it is sometimes 
in the same case as that object, and sometimes in the ace, as 
though the subject of the infin. were expressed and it agreed 
with it; as, edtopTo Kvpov, ws TV poBv fiordrov 7Tp6s top noXepop 
yevecrdai ; ideopTo pov, Trpoo-Tarijv yepeo~6ai. 

11. The infin., like a neuter noun, but without becoming 
so entirely a noun as to lose the construction and government 
of a verb, may take the neuter article in any case of the sing. 
before it, and be governed as a noun. With regard to quali- 
fying words connected with an infin. having an article, the 
following should be observed : — 

1) The subject of such an infin. is always in the ace. ; as, 

to top Tralda rayy pavBdveiv Ttpitvov Ivti* 

2) The object of such an infin. is in the case usually gov- 
erned by the verb; as, lv tco (ppopelp yap p.7]dep tJ8kttos j3ios 
(in being anxious for nothing). 

3) A personal predicative explanation connected with an 
infin. with the article is in the 1 nom., when it refers to the sub- 
ject of the governing verb; as, 8t,a to gevos elvai ovk au o'Ui 
ddiKrjOrjvaL ; would you not think .... because you are a stran- 
ger ? 

4) The attributive qualification of such an infin., as of all 
forms of the verb, is an adverb, and a predicative adjective 
referring to it is in the neuter ; as, to pep yap avrbv 4k mK&v 
7re(£euyeVai, rj 6" 1 o" r v . 



§ 70.] THE MODES. 185 

Rem. 4. The poets often use the infin. with the article where the 
prose-writers use only the simple infin. 

12. The infin. after certain adjectives expresses an action 
as a nearer definition of the adjective, or as indicating the 
point of view in which its meaning is to be taken. Such infin. 
are mostly in the active, even where the passive seems to be 
required, the action being referred to the object of the princi- 
pal verb; as, Ka\ firjv abiXois eXecvos el (to pap eyco (and in 

truth, to my friends I was pitiful to behold, i. e. for them to 
behold = to be looked upon). Here also belongs the phrase 
6avfia Ihia-Oai. But there are few cases of the infin. after 
nouns. 

13. The infin., also, follows such adjectives, when they are 
in the comparative with fj (than) after them ; in which case 
a>s or coo-re is sometimes added to the infin. ; as, t6 yap v6o-T\p.a 
fiel^ov r) (pepeiv (too great to bear) ; ol AaKedaijioutot fjo-Qovro 
"'EkDlkov eXdrrco hvvapLiv €%ovra fj co o~ r e rovs (pCkovs co (f> e X e 1 v . 

14. The Greek often uses, not only a simple infin., but also 
a whole infin. sentence, whether having its own subject or one 
continued from the governing sentence, to express the end or 
object of an action after a sentence or a verb which expresses 
the meaning of a sentence. 

1) The simple infin. is used especially when the end of the 
action is to be presented as a gift or present ; by the poets, 
also, after verbs of going, coming, existence ; as, ovk av rbv 
avrov ivalbd tls 8oir) ktclvcIv (to be killed = that they might 
kill him) ; \iav6 avziv tJkojjl€V £ivoi irpos aaTccv. 

2) The end of an action may be expressed by a whole 
infin. sentence after all kinds of sentences, but the infin. sen- 
tence must always be introduced by icj> <a (icf> y £ re, or, in its 
full form, eVi tovto), itf co), and coo-re (or in full, em roto-be, 
too-re), that, in order that, so that, to the end that; as, irav 
7roLOvaLV, cocrre (to the end that) hin-qv fir) Sid ovai. 

Rem. 5. When eft co or i<j) core is used, as it sometimes is (espe- 
cially by Herodotus and Thucydides), in the sense on condition that, 

16 * 



186 THE MODES. [§ 70. 

in case that, if, it takes the fut. indie. ; as, ol ev ^iBdop-rj Meo-o-rjvioi 
^vveftrjcrav 7rpos AaKedaLp.ov[ovs, e(^)' coTe (on condition that) i£iao~i 
(future in meaning) ck TLekoirovv7](jov kcll p7§e7rore im (3ij orour at 
avTrjs* 

15. In intermediate sentences, which express a limitation 
or qualification of the general sentiment, or some word in the 
connection, where we use so with the infin., or as with the indie. 
or potential mode, the Greek, chiefly after verbs signifying to 
say, to hear, to conjecture, to judge, to seem, to remember, uses 
the infin., generally with cos before it. This as properly re- 
fers to ovrcos (generally omitted), so that the full sense is, so 
to speak (judge, etc.) as some one (the speaker) does ; as, 

KaiToi aXrjOes ye, cos tiros el tt el v, ovhev elprjKaat (they have 

uttered nothing true, so to speak)-, ev ye eXeyev, cos ovrcoa-l 
aKovo-ai (to hear as I do=.to my hearing) ; dXX\ eludo-ai 
pev (as I conjecture), fjdvs. 

16. In like manner ehai (in Herodotus with cos) often stands 
independent of the rest of the sentence and apparently without 
much meaning, after iic&p (mostly in affirmative sentences), 
Kara bvvap.iv, to e-jr eKeivois, to kclto. tovto, to vvv, to Tfjfiepov, to 
o-vyLirav, etc. Also belv (sometimes with cos, rarely too-Te) with 

ttoXXov, oXiyov, puKpov ; as, odev drj eKovca eXvai (willing to 
be so) ovk a.7ToXeL7TeTaL rj ^vx*} ? boKel ovv pot xprjvai ovtghti fjpas 

iroirjuaL, to jxev Tr\\iepov elvai (for the day, for the present) 

XP^o-aaBaL avTjj ; to be Tas Ibias evepyealas vnopipvricrKeiv kcli Xeyeiv 
fiiKpov belv o/jlolov ecTTi tco oveibei^eiv. But belv is sometimes 
omitted, leaving the gen. alone. 

17. The infin. also (with an ace. w T hen its subject is differ- 
ent from that of the governing verb) is used after irplv or 
the less common 7rp\v rj ; as, -f] yvptj ndXtv (ppovdrj, irp\v elirelv 

eoSX6v T) KCIKOV \6yOV, 

Rem. 6. For the cases in which the indie, or the subj. and optat. 
are used with npiv, see §§ 67, 6 ; 68, 6 ; 69, I. 2. 

18. When the discourse of another is related by the ace. 
with the infin. and not by on and a finite verb, the infin. con- 
struction is often continued into the subordinate sentences 



§ 71.] THE MODES. 187 

after relative words and temporal and conditional conjunc- 
tions ; as, elvat de ra^yrrfra ovdevl irepco ofxolov, ovrco ware, el firj 

7T poXdfl (3 aV€ IV TT]S 6d0V TOVS 'ivdoVS Iv CO TOVS fJLV p flTJKdS 

crvWty ecr 6 at , ovdeva av crcpecov air o cr co £e cr 6 at. 

19. The infinitive often expresses the substance of a com- 
mand, a request, or a wonder (in this case usually taking the 
article before it), without any particular verb of commanding, 
asking, or wondering upon which it depends (called the im- 
perative use of the inf.) ; as, Oapcrcov vvv, Acofi^bes, inl Tpco€(Tcn 
fidx^o-dac (taking courage . ... to Jfght —fight) ; 6eo\ noXiraL, 
fifj'pc SovXelas Tv^eii/ (/ei me not incur); tovtov 5* vfipL- 
{eivf dvairvelv be! ov el res la £/ji>, dyairdv ebei (that this 
man should riot in insolence, should breathe freely !). 
Rem. 7. For the use of av with the infin. see § 73. 

§ 71. The Participle. 

1. The participle, which is' much more used in Greek 
than in English, has both a dependent and an independent 
construction, — dependent, when it agrees with either the sub- 
ject or object of the sentence in gender, number, and case ; 
independent, when it agrees with some noun in the gen. (gen- 
itive absolute), or stands in the ace. neuter (ace. absolute), 
either alone or with a neuter adjective, in both cases independ- 
ent of the rest of the sentence in which it occurs. 

2. The dependent participle expresses either an 
objective relation or an attributive relation, — objective, where 
it is equivalent to the infin., or a subordinate sentence intro- 
duced by that, in our language ; attributive, where it merely 
describes or defines the subject or object of a sentence like an 
adjective or a noun in apposition, except that it retains the idea 
of time. 

I. The objective dependent participle is used 
either invariably, or mostly, or often, after the following 
verbs : — 



188 THE MODES. [§ 71. 

1) To happen, to appear, to be evident, to show, to prove, 

to Conceal, to anticipate, Tvyxdveiv, (fiaivecrBai, (pavepov elmi, SrjXov 
elvai, beiKvvvai, drjXovv, et-eXeyxtw, XavOdveiv, (pBdveiv, etc. ; as, 

drjXos el KaracjypovSu jjlov (you are evident despising me, or 
as we say, it is evident that you despise me). 

2) To begin, to cease, to leave, to bear, to endure, to con- 
tinue, to labor, to become weary of, to give up, apx^o-Bai, wave- 

o~6ai, Xr\yeiv, Traveiv, imXeiTreiv, Kaprepiiv, dvix*o-6ai, diareXelv, dcayt- 
yvecrOai, Kap.veiv, aneip-qKevai, dnayopeveiv, etc. ; as, ovttotg iiravo- 

\ir]v rjjjLas olKT€Lpcop {I could never cease pitying, or to pity). 

Rem. 1. Some verbs of these two classes, as rvyxdveuv, (pBduetv, 
XavOdveiv, biareXiiv, biayiyvecrOai, bidyeiv, when followed by a parti- 
ciple, may generally be best rendered into English by the correspond- 
ing adverb, and the participle, as though it were a finite verb in the 
same tense; as, eXaBe rpe(f)cov top (fiovea, he was unconsciously 
nourishing his murderer (literally, nourishing his murderer, he knew 
it not). 

3) To rejoice, to be pleased, to be vexed, to be indignant, 

to be ashamed, to repent, xcupetz>, dyairdv, fjdeo~Bai, ^aXe^a)? (be- 
petv, axOecrdai, dyavaKTelv, a\o~xyvto~Bai, (jLeTapiXecrBai, etc. ; as, ovk 
eiT ai<TXVV£0-6z, yrjs ovtco voo~ovo~r)S, 'Idia KLVOVPTCS KdKa. 

4) To see, to overlook, to allow to take place, to perceive, to 
remember, to learn, to hear, to know, to be conscious of, to 
find, to seize, opdv, irepopdv, alcrBdvecrBai, pL€p,i/rjaBai, yiyvuvKeiv, 
pavBdveiv, aKOveiv, elbevau, avveiftivai eavrcp, evpiaKeiv, KaraXapfidveiv, 

etc. ; as, ovk i pdvQavov rpefyav bu ara (he did not know 
that he was cherishing). 

Rem. 2. Many of the above classes of verbs take the infin. also 
(see §70, 1,3), but with a somewhat different meaning. The partici- 
ple expresses simply a condition of the subject or object of a verb, 
whereas the infin. expresses the object itself of a verb ; as, alo-xvvopcu 
ravra Xeyav (I, speaking these things, am ashamed) ; but alo~xvvopai 
ravra Xkyeiv (I am ashamed to speak = at the speaking of). And so 
in other cases. For such of these verbs as are used with on or cos, 
see Sec. V. The part, in this relation is used with w? but rarely, and 
mostly by the poets; as, cos prjSev eld or* tadt \x hv dvtaropels, be 
assured that I know nothing of what you relate (lit. regard me as 
knowing). 

II. The dependent participle is used, also : — 






§ 71.] THE MODES. ' 189 

1) As an attributive which depends upon or qualifies a sub- 
ject or object like a noun in apposition. This, too, can rarely 
be translated by a part., but generally eitner by a relative, 
temporal, conditional, causal, or final sentence. But often the 
idea of time, condition, cause, end, is expressed by particles 
connected with the part. ; as, evflvs, avrUa, apa, Kainep, aWcos 
re kcli, are, olov, cos ', as, tls rjv ttotc 6 Toixrde \e£as rovs \6yovs 
(who was it, I should like to know, who spoke these words ?) ; 
(jfuAei yap oKveiv irpaypH dprjp Trpdcrcrcov pkya (when he is doing) ; 
(TvpfiovkevG* crot, Kai7rep vecortpos cov, prj acpaipelorBai a av dcos ', 

\r)'i£6fjL€voi £&(Tiv (they live by robbery = because they plun- 
der). 

2) With the particle 60s in the sense with the impression, 
conviction that, under the pretext, appearance that, and (with 
the fut. part.) with the purpose, particularly with the fut. part, 
of 7rapao-K€vd£ecr6ai ; as, wy ovv an^Way fxevot, tovtcov tcov kclkoZv 

rjdecos iKoifirjOrjo-av (under the impression that t\ey were rid of 
these evils) ; ol *A6r)va7oi Trap€o~K€va£ovTQ cos iro\ep,rj<rovT€S (just 
as if they were going to fight). 

3) In dialogue, when one inquires the ground or explana- 
tion of something which the other has just stated, where we 
more commonly use an independent sentence ; thus, A. 6 epos 
Trarrjp aireKTeivev avrov. — B. ti Xaftcov ddiKovvra ; (A. My father 

killed him. B. In the commission of what crime did he detect 
him ?). 

III. We come now to the independent participle, 
which is either in the gen. or ace, corresponding to the Latin 
ablative absolute, and, like the dependent participle, expresses 
the relations of time, condition, cause, etc., which ideas are 
also more emphatically expressed sometimes by the addition 
of certain particles, particularly cos. 

1) The genitive absolute, consisting of a part, joined to a 
noun in the gen., is used with cos to denote that the idea ex- 
pressed by it is to be regarded as the substance of some con- 
ception, opinion, or conviction, implied in the connection ; as, 



190 THE MODES. [§ 72. 

ipcora o n /3ovXet, cos TaKrjBrj (/xov) epovvros (persuaded that I 
will tell the truth). c £ls is also sometimes used thus, even when 
the opinion is expressed by yiyv&o-Keip, or ovtco ttjv yvdopr)v e'xetv ; 

aS, COS €fXOV OVV loVTOS 07T7] CLV KOL VpeiS, OVTCO TT)V yVQOp7]V €)(€T€. 

The part, here expresses what is called the conceived or as- 
sumed ground. 

Rem. 3. The noun belonging- to the part, is sometimes omitted, 
when it may be easily supplied from the connection, leaving the part- 
alone ; as, evrevBev rr p o'i 6 vt co v icpaivero 'Lx vr ) "irnw KaL K-oirpos. 

2) The accusative absolute consists of a neuter singular 

participle ; as, deov, e£oy, napou, 7T/)ocn}/<:oj>, Trapexov, pe\ov, pera- 

jxekov, boKovV) bo$;av, or the participles of passive verbs used im- 
personally, e. g. irporaxBev, elp-qpevov, ytvopevov eV e/xoi, or 01 
impersonal expressions formed from a neuter adjective with 
the part, of dpi, e. g. ddvvarov, alcrxpov 6V, and may generally be 
rendered into English by a temporal or causal sentence hav- 
ing the same time as the finite verb which it stands connected 
with ; as, d\\d ri dl], vpds l£bv dnoXecraL (when it was allowed), 
ovk em tovto fj\6ojjL€v ; It is also constructed with cos like the 
gen. absolute ; as, avTL7rapeo-K€vd^€TO eppcopevcos, cos pdx^s cri 
berjo-ov (just as if there were still a necessity of battle). 

Rem. 4. The dat. of the participle agreeing with a noun some- 
times appears to be independent, and may be conveniently rendered so 
into English, but the noun always refers to a person interested in the 
action more or less remotely, and hence cannot be absolute, but ex- 
presses the ordinary relation of the dat. to a verb ; as, dnopovvT i 
avrco epxercu Ilpop-qdevs (while he iv as perplexed, in his perplexity) . 

Rem. 5. For the use of av with the part, see § 73, 5. 

§ 72. The Imperative. 

As the Greek imperative does not differ materially 
from the imperative in English, we simply add here : — 

1. That the negative particle for the imperat. is prj, p*)&<> 

pr/deis (not ov, etc.) ; as, pr) poi dvriXeye. 

2. That a negative command or prohibition cannot be ex- 
pressed by the imperat. of the aor., but either by the imperat. 



§ 73.] THE MODES. 191 

of the pres. or the subj. of the aorist (see § 68, 3, 3) ; as, 

TavTa fjLOL wpaijov, T€Kvov, kol jjlt} fipddvve, jJLTjd c TTipLvq o~6rjs 
€TL Tpoias. 

3. That the Greek expresses a command not merely by 
the imperat., but also sometimes by the opt. with av (see § 69, 
II. 2), and sometimes by different kinds of questions, and 
occasionally by the infin. (see § 70, 19). 

4. Acommandis expressed in the way of a question : — 

1) By the fut. indie, sometimes with and sometimes with- 
out ov ; as, nalfes, ov o-KeyjreaBc (will you not look to it ? = 
look to it immediately). 

2) By ov with the indie, of the pres. or aorist ; as, ti ovv 
ovk iXBcbv Kva£dp7] Xeyeis ravra (tell them immediately). 

3) By ov and the optative with av ; as, ovk av cf)6dvois Xe- 
ycov (would you not speak first 7 = speak first). 

4) By the deliberative subjunctive (see § 68, 3, 1). 

5) A prohibition is expressed in the way of a question 
by \ir\ or ov fir) with the fut. indie. ; as, p.^ dpdo-eis tovto (you 
will not do this, will you 1 -=.do it not) ; ov /xj) \a\rjo-eis (will 
you not cease talking ? = cease talking). But without a ques- 
tion, also, ov firj with the subj. expresses a prohibition ; as, ov 
p,rj yevrjrai tovto (let this not take place). 

Rem. In dependent questions after olada (also in other dependent 
sentences) the imperative seems to stand for the future, or Set with 
the infin. ; as, oto-0' ovv b dpdo-ov ; {knowest thou what thou shouldst 
do?). 

§ 73. The different Forms of the Verb with the Particle av. 

The particle &/, which expresses a presumption or proba- 
bility of an action, may be used with all the modes of the 
verb, except the imperat., but not in all the tenses. It is 
used : — 

1. With the subjunctive of all tenses in relative, tem- 
poral, and conditional sentences ; but it is sometimes omitted 
in each of these classes of sentences, especially by the poets, 



192 THE MODES. [§ 73. 

where the sense would admit of its being used (see § G8, 
R. 4). It is occasionally used with the subj. in sentences 
denoting the end or purpose. 

2. With the optative of all times (except the future) in 
both independent and dependent sentences, in which the optat. 
has the same function as the subj., except that it follows an 
historical tense. But it never stands with the optative where 
that stands in a closely dependent relation (see § 69, B,. 1) 
upon the principal clause, nor after another optative. Hence 
it is not used in the protasis of conditional sentences, nor in 
sentences expressing a wish (see examples under Sections III. 
and IV.). 

3. With the indie, of the historical tenses (never of 
the principal tenses) in order to express the conceived possi- 
bility of an action. Here there are two cases. 

1) In the apodosis of conditional sentences, 
when the indie, of an historical tense stands in both the protasis 
and apodosis (i. e. the clause containing the condition, and 
that containing the consequence of the condition, or what is 
based upon it). In sentences of this kind the protasis, if in 
the imperf., should be translated into English by the imperf. 
subj. or potential, and if in the aor., by the pluperf., while the 
apodosis should be translated, in the first case, by the imperf., 
and in the second, by the pluperf. potential ; as, el ravra oyrco? 
€?xe, ttclvtes €7r € 6 v fio v v av rvpaweiv (if this were so, all would 
desire to be king) ; and, el ravra ovtcos ecr^e, Tvdvres eTTe6v- 
fi7](rap av rvpaweiv (if these things had been so, all would have 
desired to be king). Here it will be seen that the reality 
both of the condition and its consequence is denied, since the 
condition on which the whole depends is merely assumed as 
something which might have been, but was not. 

2) In this case, too, which is not so common as the preced- 
ing, av is used with the indie, of an historical tense 
(chiefly the imperf.) in the apodosis of a conditional sentence, 
but after an optat. in the protasis. Here the condition is ex- 






$73.] 



THE MODES. 



193 



pressed as possible (not unreal), while the consequence . is 
expressed in a modest way as a possibility instead of a reality. 
We generally render the verb with & by would, wont, accus- 
tomed, and the like. The condition in this, as well as in the 
previous case, is sometimes expressed by a part, or conjunc- 
tion of time, as well as by d; as, ol 6W, Uei ns dco> K ct, 

7rpodpap6vres av earacrav (if any one might pursue would 

stop, were in the habit of stopping). 

4. With the infinitive of all the tenses, except the 
future, in order to express the action as a conceived possi- 
bility. Here there are two cases to be considered, according 
as the sentence containing the infill, with Sv stands uncon- 
nected with another sentence, or as it is connected with a 
conditional sentence either expressed or implied. 

1) When the infinitive sentence stands independent of a 
conditional sentence. Here the irifin. with av, whether of 
the pres. or aor., corresponds to the optat. with av in the like 
relation, and always refers to the present ; as, voplfa rovro av 
yiyveaOai (or yevicrdai), I think this would happen, = yiyvotro 

(or yevoiro) av tovto, as vofilfa. But it may often be translated 
by the future. 

2) Where the infin. sentence is connected with a condi- 
tional sentence. Here, if the conditional sentence has the 
opt., the infin. expresses the same idea as the optative would 
in its place, and 'hence the same as in the preceding case ; but 
if the conditional clause has the indie, of an historical tense, 
then the infin. stands where the indie, of an historical tense 
would be used in direct discourse, — the infin. pres. for the 
imperf. indie, and the infin. aor. for the aor. indie, and 
hence is to be rendered as in 3, 1 ; as, KopivOioc ko\ 'Kpydoi, ei 
Teyea ar(f)L(Ti n poary ivoiTo, ivopifav airaaav av e^cn/ TLekoTrovvr)- 
(Tov (should have) ; avev <rei(rpov (= €t prj creicrpos eytvero) ovk 
av poL doled to tolovto a v p. j3 rj v a i yevea-dai (could not have 

happened). . 

5. With the participle of all the tenses, except the fut., 

17 



194 THE MODES. [§ 73, 

and may be used, as with the infin., in all cases where the 
participle, if resolved, would form a sentence which would 
take av either with the optative or the indie, of an historical 
tense ; as, co Trdvra roXficov Kano ttclvtos av (j) k p co v (=. bs (pepois 
av) \6yov SiKaiov \kT)yavr\\x.a iroiKtKov ; dXX', co yepae, <fipd£e, .... cos 
6 eXovros av ip,ov irpocrapKelv irav (= yiyycoaKcov, otl iyco e 6 e - 
X o i fit av nav irpoo-apKeiv) . 

Rem. 1. For ©?, which is often found with the participle with av, 
see § 71. 

6. With reference to the position of aV, it should be ob- 
served : a) that it is never the first word in its sentence 
(except sometimes in short parenthetical clauses) ; b) that 
when it follows its verb it generally stands immediately after 
it, but when it precedes it, as it always does the subj., it is 
often widely separated from it ; c) that it generally comes 
immediately after conjunctions, relative pronouns, negatives, 
and adverbs which express or imply a conjecture (as tt©?, apa, 
etc.), and also many other adverbs which turn or modify the 
sense. 

7. The particle av is often found twice (and sometimes 
more than twice) in the same sentence, especially with the 
optative : a) When its power is to be extended, not only to 
the verb, but also to some other word in the sentence (mostly 
pronouns, adverbs, and negatives, so that ovk. av, for instance, 
has the meaning of the Latin haud ; as, ovk civ yvvaiK&v rjacroves 
KaXolfjLcB' av, not surely should we be called), b) When it is 
separated too far from its verb, it is repeated immediately after 
it; as, (dot av, €i o~6evos Xci/3oi/xi, &77X co craip? av oV avrois <f)pov<Q. 
c) But av is often found with a relative or conjunction without 
its verb, when it may be readily supplied from the context ; 

as, oo-nep av, axnrep av, 7TQ>s yap av, etc. 

Rem. 2. In the Epic language *<f or kev is used for av, and in the 
Lyric language, the Doric *d, kov. But Homer sometimes uses av 
for Ktv, and sometimes, to make the contingent idea stronger, uses 
them both together. 



§ 74.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 195 

SECTION III. 

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

Note. The particle el or (compounded with av) edv, rjv^ av (with 
a long a) is the conditional particle, and is connected with the hypo- 
thetical clause (usually standing first, and hence called the protasis) 
of a compound conditional sentence. The simple el stands with the 
indie, or opt., but rarely, and only by certain writers, with the subj. ; 
with which mode edv, fjv, av is regularly used, and with no other. 

§ 74. The Indicative in Conditional Sentences. 

1. As the English often uses if with the indie, of all the 
tenses, so the Greek uses el with the indie, of all the tenses 
when a case is to be assumed as a fact for the sake of the 
conclusion to be drawn from it, whether it really be a fact or 
not ; as, el 6eol n dpcocri alaxpov, ovk elcriv 6eoi (if the gods do 
what is base — as is assumed — they are no gods) ; etjrjv yap 
avr(o prj ypd<petv, et ye to fteXncrTov rfj 7r6Xec (TKonelv e (3ov\ero 

(if he wished to consider — as he pretended to — the best 
interest of the state). 

Rem. Here, in expressing unfavorable feelings or judgments, 
ei, as implying less positiveness, and hence as a politer expression, 
often stands for on ; as, Oavpafa el ravra ylyverai (if they have hap- 
pened, instead of that they have happened). 

2. But where el stands with the indie, of an historical 
tense, while the principal clause has av with the indie, of an 
historical tense also (which historical tense, in both cases, is 
generally the imperf. or aor.), the existence of the condition 
and the admissibility of the consequence are both denied, as is 
done by our imperf. and pluperf. potential, as has been already 
stated. See § 73, 3, 1. 

3. But it should be stated further : — 

1) The Greek often uses the imperf. with av, partly in 
conditional sentences and partly in principal sentences, where 
we use the pluperf. potential, when the object is to indicate 
the continuance of a past action in the assumed point of 



196 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. [§ 76. 

time ; as, old* av eyaye £crTacria£ov (would not have rebelled, 
lit. was not likely to rebel), el aXXov elXeo-Oe. 

2) Of course, different tenses may be used in the different 
members of the compound sentence, according to the sense, 
as is seen in the above example. So, too, the modes some- 
times vary from their usual order of sequence, in order to 
exhibit the idea in the different clauses in different lights, so 
that an opt., sometimes in the protasis and sometimes in the 
apodosis, is not unfrequently found connected with a subj. or 
the indie, both of a principal and an historical tense ; as, el 
tovto \eyeis, dfiapTavois av (if you say this, you would err). 

3) The condition is often expressed by a participle, by a 
noun with a preposition, or by a particle ; and sometimes 
the conditional clause is not expressed, where it is readily 
supplied from the connection; as, rore yap av Bavcbv (i. e. el 
eoavov) ovk r)v (piAouri ovo epoi rocrovo a%os , evua or) eyvco av tls 
(i. e. if he had been present), oo-ov a^iov e'lrj to cptkelcrBaL ap^ovra 
vtto tcov irepi avrov. 

§ 75. The Subjunctive in Conditional Sentences. 

We have here merely to repeat what has already been 

stated (§ 68, 7 and 8), that the subj. with idv, fjv, av (rarely 

with el) is used in conditional sentences only when it refers to 

a probable future event, and stands connected with a principal 

clause referring either to the present or future ; as, ko\ Sevp\ 

eav p.01 rod xpovov doKrjre ri Karavyoka^eiv, ai)6i$ e K7re fiyJAco 

ttoKlv tovtov tov avrov avbpa. 

Rem. But el with the fat. indie, has nothing of the idea of 
mere probability in it, but is simply an assumed future {Hit shall be 
so, as I assume it will be). 

§ 76. The Optative in Conditional Sentences. 

In addition to what has already been said on the use of the 
opt. in conditional sentences (see § 69, 2) it may here be 
added : — 



§ 77.] SENTENCES EXPRESSING A WISH. 197 

1) That when the opt. with av stands in the apodosis, and 
the opt. with el in the protasis, both the condition and the 
consequence are represented as possible, and not, as in the 
indie, of the historical tenses with et and av, as contrary to 
fact (see § 73, 3, 1) ; as, yiyvoiro av tovto, las vofiifa, et au 
7rapei7js, this would take place, as 1 think, if you should be 
present. 

2) As the Greek, in its delicate mode of representation, 
often expresses positive convictions or facts as mere possibili- 
ties by the optative, so it often expresses in the same way, as 
possible, mere conceptions of the imagination; as, fyalr) av 
% 6avova-a y, el (pcovrjv Aa/3ot, even the dead would speak, if she 
could assume her voice. 

Rem. Whether the optative with et and av should be used, or the 
indie, of the historical tenses with et and av, depends upon whether 
the case is viewed as possible or impossible. 



SECTION IV. 

§ 77. Sentences expressing a Wish. 

1. There are the four following ways of expressing a wish : 
a) by the simple optative (rarely the subj.) ; b) by the indie. 
of an historical tense ; c) by oo<j>e\ov with an infinitive ; in 
which three cases the sentence is generally introduced by 
et yap, eWe (Epic at#e), or cos ; d) by ncos av or ris av with the 
optative, in a question. 

2. The first two cases are nothing but conditional senten- 
ces, without the principal clause expressed. The wish is 
expressed by the opt., as in conditional sentences, when the 
speaker regards the realization of the wish as possible ; by 
the indie, of an historical tense, when he regards it as impos- 
sible, — the imperf. when as a present impossibility, the 
a or. when a past impossibility ; as, o> dvcnroTfjL, et'0' /x^7rore 
yvoirjs, os et (0 that I had never known who thou art!) ; 
et#' rjo-Oa dwaros (would that you were able, as you are not) 

17* 



198 FINAL SENTENCES. [§ 78. 

opav, octov irpoBvpos et ; ei$e (rot, a> UepiKXcis, Tore crvveyevopTjv, 
would that I had then known you, 

3. The verb axpiXov with an infin. is used (especially in 
poetry) to express a wish which cannot or has not been ful- 
filled (i. e. either present or past), and the infin. is sometimes 
omitted. The negative here is firj (not ov) ; as, prjiror' 
axpeXov \nre1v ttju Sicvpov, would that I had never have left, 
lit. I never ought to have left. 

4. For the expression of a wish whose fulfilment is regarded 
as possible, by the opt. with av, see § 69, II. 2. 

SECTION V. 

FINAL SENTENCES. 

Note. The conjunctions (originally relative adverbs) which are 
used to introduce final sentences are Iva, cos, oircos (poet. ocppa), and 
the negative forms tva p-q, w? pq, oircos prj, and sometimes merely prj. 
These sentences express the end or purpose for which that is done 
which is expressed by the principal sentence. The predicate of such 
sentences is most commonly in the subj. or opt. ; rarely in the indie. 
of an historical tense, and very seldom in the fut. indie. 

§ 78. The Subjunctive and Optative in Final Sentences. 

1. After a principal tense, or one which has the meaning of 
a principal tense, the subj. is always used, except in a very 
few cases, where the fut. indie, is used (see § 67, 4) ; but 
after an historical tense, or one which has the meaning of an 
historical tense, sometimes the optative, and sometimes the 
subjunctive is used, — the optative, when the coincidence of 
the beginning of the purpose with the action of the principal 
sentence is to be indicated ; the subjunctive, when the refer- 
ence is not to the time of the beginning of the purpose, but to 
its existence, and it is to be distinctly indicated that the end has 
not been attained, but is still in view ; as, Xey civSls, cos paWov 
fia^o); Kal apa ravra elircop dvecrTf], cos prj peWoiro, d\\a 
7T€ pa lv o iTO Tci biovTa ; a {to. ttKolo.) totc 'AfipoKop,as Vpolatp Kare~ 



§ 80.] FINAL SENTENCES. 199 

Kavaev, tva pr) Kvpos $ia(3rj, that he may not pass, i. e. when 
he has reached it. 

Rem. Since the Latin always uses the pres. subj. after a principal 
tense, and the imperf. subj. after an historical tense, in final senten- 
ces, it is evident that the Romans constructed such sentences only 
with reference to the time of the beginning of the purpose, and not of 
its continuance. 

2. It has already been stated (§ 68, 4) that av may be used 
with final sentences, but it is rarely used with tva or the sim- 
ple p.r\ ; as, kcu iniTrjftes ere ovk rjyeipovy tva a>s fjdicrTa didygs. 

§ 79. The Future Indicative in Final Sentences. 

This occurs (and very rarely too) only after onus (a>?) or 
O7rcos firj (see § 67, 4), and differs from the subj. or opt. in 
sense only by expressing less uncertainty ; as, x^P €L <™> PI 

rrpoa^evo-o-e, yevvalos irep ooi>, fjfi&v 7rco$ fir) ttjv Tvxrjv $ ia(j) 6 epels 

(how you shall not, that you shall not). 

Rem. The particle ottcos sometimes refers to some such word as 
opa, Spare (see to it), to be supplied, when it is called the hortatory 

0770)$*. 

§ 80. Indicative of Historical Tenses in Final Sentences. 

After the indie, of an historical tense in the principal sen- 
tence, the indie, of an historical tense is also used in the final 
sentence, when a purpose is to be expressed which has not 
been accomplished or cannot be accomplished. In this case 
tva, as, owcos may be best rendered by in which case, in what 

way, etc. ; as, ovkovv e*XP*l v (r€ n^yao-ou {evt-ai irrepov, 7TO)ff 

€<fiaivov rots tieols t pay lkcot epos (thou shouldst have stayed the 

wing of Pegasus, in which case thou wouldst have appeared 

more tragical to the gods). 

Rem. Final sentences are properly objective sentences, like those 
introduced by on and cos (see § 69, 3). 



200 PARTICLES. [§ 8L 

CHAPTER V. 

PARTICLES. 

§ 81. Adverbs. 

1. Adverbs of place, time, and manner limit or qualify 
verbs, as adjectives do nouns ; as, noWatas edav^ao-a, I have 
often wondered ; ev Ae'yei?, you say well. 

Rem. 1. For the classification and endings of adverbs, see § 42. 

2. Adverbs of intensity limit or qualify adjectives and other 
adverbs ; as, itapv 7roXXoi, very many ; padlcos ndw, very 
easily. 

3. Modal adverbs do not so much limit anv word in a sen- 
tence, as modify the whole thought ; since they exhibit it 
either as affirmative or negative, as certain or 
doubtful, or as of an interrogatory character. 

4. The affirmative adverb is mi, and the negative ov (ovk, 

0^5 °^x0 or Mi — tne f° rmer being the direct and absolute 

negative, and the latter only a conditional and contingent 

negative, and hence generally used with the subj., opt., im- 

perat., infin. (especially with the article), part, (particularly 

if resolvable into a conditional clause), and in all other cases 

where the action or quality to be denied is not conceived as a 

certainty; as, ov yiyverac Tavra, these things are not; pr) 

ytvoiTo, let it not be ; prj ypdcpcopevj let us not write ; d prj ypd- 

cf)€Ls t if you do not write ; p,rj Triorrevcov, if one does not believe 

(but ov iricrT€V(x)v, one who does not believe} ; to p.f) fevyciv (the 

article giving a subjective character to the infin., and hence 

requiring p$). 

Rem. 2. There is the same difference between the negative ad- 
verbs and pronouns compounded with these two negatives ; as, ovde 
prjbe, ovt€ fJLTjre, ovdeis /nySeis, ovtis prjris, ovkcti /z^Keri, etc. 

5. Two negatives in Greek, belonging to the same verb, 
strengthen the negation. This occurs especially in the fol- 
lowing cases : — 



§ 81.] PARTICLES. 201 

1) A negative and a negative pronoun; as, ov ovfcts, fir) 

firjdels, etc. ; as, ov Ken Kaipbv ovbeva tov fiorjdelv vofiicravTcs. 

2) Verbs of a negative import, or made so by an accom- 
panying negative, or implying fear, doubt, regularly take pr) 
(and sometimes fir) ov) before a following infin. (and some- 
times in a clause introduced by on and cbs) ; as, dtrapvovpai pr) 
cTrio-raorOai, I deny that I know. 

3) Verbs of a negative import preceded by a negative, or 

implying another negative (as in questions), regularly take pr) 

ov with the following infin. or part., making a double double 

negative ; as, ovk anapvovpai fir) ovk into-rao-Oat,, I do not deny 

that I know. 

Rem. 3. With a verb in the indie, subj., or opt. after verbs de- 
noting fear, anxiety, or with such a verb understood, ov pr) mean not 
that (as, I do not fear that), and pr) ov, that not or lest not (as, I fear 
that he may not) ; while the simple pr) means xohether not (as, I fear 
xuhether he has not) ; thus, ov fir) XaXrjo-eis, I shall not apprehend that 
you will talk; deboiica fir) ov reOvrjKev, I fear that he has not died; 
dedoiKa fir) djroddvr], I fear whether he may not be dead. 

6. Adverbs denoting certainty or uncertainty (most- 
ly the former) are 8r) (Sat), drjra (now, surely, as is well 

known) ; Or)y, Sr)6ev, drjrrov, drjTTOvQcv, vu, rjnov {without doubt, 

forsooth, I dare say, mostly ironical) ; pr)v (pdv), t), tol, rjroi 

(truly, indeed) ; nep, entirely, precisely ; ye, indeed, for one, 

myself 

Rem. 4. The particles irkp and ye are often mere suffixes (see 
§ 28), but retain the same meaning as when they are not joined on to 
their word ; tol is an old form of the possessive pronoun of the second 
person (instead of o-oi), but is generally a mere intensive particle, and 
may be rendered by indeed, certainly, you know, sir, etc. 

7. The single interrogative adverbs are fj (rJ7rov), ov, ovkovv 
(implying a belief in the affirmative of the question, and hence 
soliciting an affirmative answer) ; p&v, pi) (implying a belief in 
the negative) ; apa (denoting doubt), apa ov (implying an affirm- 
ative belief), and apa fir) (negative). 

8. The double interrogative adverbs are irorepov (iroTtpa) 
. . . .rj,apa t) (whether . , . . or), pr) rj (whether not 



202 PARTICLES. [§ 82, 

or) ; also aXAon fj or simply aXXon (is there any thing else 
than that ? is there? does there ? nonne ?). 

Rem. 5. For the correlative interrogative words, both pronouns 
and adverbs', both direct and indirect, see § 27. 

Rem. 6. Of the above modal adverbs, the following are regularly- 
placed after one or more words in their sentence: av, apa,avj 8ai, 
$r), br]7TOV } brjTTOvdev, ftrjra, ye, 6r)V, nip, roi, fxr]v, noOiv, nodi, ttoi, ttj], 
ttov, 770)?, nori, 7ra). Also the conjunctions 6e, yap, jJ-iv, fiivroi, 
roivvv, re, ovv, yovv, vvv. 

§ 82. Prepositions. 

Note. For the meaning and usage of prepositions with the differ- 
ent cases, see § 43. 

1. As the prepositions were originally adverbs, in the earlier 
forms of the language, as in Homer and Herodotus (but 
rarely in the Attic, and almost wholly in poetry), the preposi- 
tion is very commonly separated from its verbs, and merely 
qualifies it as an adverb [tmesis) ; as, 0776 Xotybv dfivvai (to 
ward off destruction). 

Rem. 1. While thus, in the early language, a preposition may be 
repeated without its verb (as, Kara fxev enavcrav Apvpov Kara de 
Xapdftprjv), in the later language we sometimes find a verb, noun, or 
adjective repeated without its 'preposition ; as, crvpLirovzlv kcl\ cpepciv ras 
o-vfMpopds, to labor and bear together the calamities. 

2. As motion implies a subsequent state of rest, and rest a 
previous motion, the construction (generally being of the in- 
tensive or pregnant character) is often adapted to this antece- 
dent or subsequent state, rather than to the principal idea ; a 
preposition with the dat. being used for a preposition with the 
ace. (especially iv for *&)', or the reverse, or and, e/c, or napd 
with the gen., instead of iv or napd with the dat. ; as, fidWeiv 
iv Koviyariv, to throw and leave in the dust ; crrds inl to avve- 
bpiov (the ace. instead of the dat.); ol etc tt)s dyopas dni- 
<pvyov (instead of ol iv rfj dyopa), those in the market-place fled 
from it ; ootis S* d^iKvolro tcov nap a /3 a o~ tX eo> $• (instead of 
,3ao-iXeT), whoever of those with the king came. In the same 
manner and and i< are used for inl with verbs of hanging ; 



§ 82.] PARTICLES. 203 

the idea hanging from being expressed, instead of hang- 
ing on. 

Rem. 2. The same species of attraction occurs, also, in adverbs; 
the forms denoting whither or whence being used in place of those de- 
noting where, and the reverse. 

3. Several nouns having a common dependence upon a 

preposition take it severally, when they are independent of, 

or contrasted with, each other, but only before the first, when 

they are regarded as expressing a combined whole ; as, koI 

irpos (piXovs de Ka\ Ijevovs kol 7rpos rrju aWrjv diairrju (where irpos 

is omitted before ^eVovs, because a mere appendage of (piXovs, 

but repeated before diatTTjv, because expressing a new and 

independent idea). 

Rem. 3. A preposition which would regularly be repeated before 
a relative pronoun, or in the second member of comparative sentences, 
after as, cbcnrep, fj, or before a word in the questions and answers of 
dialogue, is often omitted ; as, iu r<£ xpo*/a>, o> (for iu o>) vp.(cv d/coua>. 

Rem. 4. On the contrary, in poetry (especially Epic poetry), two 
prepositions are sometimes found together ; as, 6\a npo, dfitfn nepl 
(round about), Trap ck, vtt e/c, anoTrpo, 7rep\ irpo ; also npo or nepl in 
connection with ei/e/ca, x^P lv - 

Rem. 5. A preposition, also, is sometimes used superfluously be- 
fore a case which would regularly be governed by another word ; as, 
ixti^ov ootls avr\ ttjs avrov narpas (j)l\ov vopi£ei, whoever considers 
a friend above his country. 

4. The preposition, which regularly stands immediately 

before the noun with its accompanying attribute, is sometimes 

separated from it by particles (such as ye, p.kv> yap, ovv, etc.) 

or olfiai ; and is sometimes placed after it (but not in Attic 

prose, except 7re/n), in which case the accent is drawn from 

the last to the first syllable (anastrophe, § 7, 7). 

Rem. 6. Prepositions have the accent drawn to the first syllable, 
also, when they seem to be used as compounds with clvai, to be; as, 
iyco 7Tapa (apparently for irapeipL), I am present; so p.kra, irapa, Jetti, 
Kept, vtto, eve. But strictly, in such cases some form of elvai is un- 
derstood, and the prepositions have an adverbial meaning. 

5. When the idea of the preposition in a compound verb is 
prominent and somewhat distinct, it may take the same case 



204 PARTICLES. [§ 82. 

as when it stands alone ; as, elo-rjXOou ttjv ypa(f>r}v^ or rbv dy&va, 
1 entered upon the charge or into the action; Karrjyopelp.aov^ 
to bring a charge against you ; inex^v tovtcd, to give attention 
to this ; at (vrjes) VTrepasexdelcrcu, top AevKaSicov laBpLOP^ the ships 
having been carried across the Leucadian isthmus. 

Note. Conjunctions and interjections require no further treatment 
than they have already received. See § 44. 



: : i 



APPENDIX. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Note. Only a few of the more common metres are here intro- 
duced, and such as occur in continuous narrative, or at least in a con- 
tinuous series of lines, in the Greek poets more commonly read in our 
colleges. For the less common and more complicated metres, see 
Munk's Greek and Roman Metres. For the quantity of syllables, 
see § 5. 

I. DACTYLIC HEXAMETER, OR HEROIC VERSE. 

1. A line in this measure consists of six feet, which may- 
be either spondees (consisting of two long syllables, ) or 
dactyles (consisting of a long followed by two short sylla- 
bles, ~) ; but the last foot but one is generally a dactyle, 

and the last, regularly a spondee (the last syllable, however, 
being sometimes short). 

Rem. The metrical accent in this measure is on the first syllable 
of each foot (called the arsis, the remainder of the foot being called 
the thesis) ; and the ccesura (or pause at the end of some word near 
the middle of the line, which divides a foot) is generally in the third 
foot, but sometimes in the fourth. 

2. The rule for the caesura, then, in this measure, is, to 
make a pause at the end of the first word which divides afoot, 
after the completion of the second foot (but if there be no such 
division, there is no caesura). Thus : — 

Tig t ap\(T(j)(0€ 0ejah> \\ cpi\dc Jw^w fid\x€(T0ai. 
To) fiep I rapPr]\<TavT€ \\ Kal \ aldofie\vco /3a(ri|X^a. 
Mdvri Ka\K(bv ov|7jworl \ pot || to \ Kprjyvov \ eiircSo 

18 



206 VERSIFICATION. 

3. In scanning a line of poetry (whether hexameter or any 
other kind), regard the feet rather than the words, observing 
the metrical and not the word-accent, and paying no attention 
to the end of the words, except at the caesura, and the end of 
the line. Thus : — 

Tovdr] /zei/Scre'^VeiTa — 7r6^MpKr}s blosA xiXAevs. 

Qdpcrrj (ras/iaXa^ei7re — O^oirpoiTi ovotl oicrda, 

II. IAMBIC TRIMETER. 

1. A line in this measure consists of six feet, of which the 
fundamental foot is the iambus (~ ~), but admitting in certain 
places either the dactyle, the spondee, the tribrach (~ w ~), or 
the anapast ( w , the reverse of the dactyle). 

Rem. 1. Here, also, as in the hexameter and most other metres, 
the last syllable in a line need not be of the quantity required by the 
character of the closing foot, but may be long when that requires a 
short syllable, and the reverse. 

2. The tribrach may be used instead of the iambus in any 
of the six places or measures, the spondee in the odd places 
(first, third, and fifth), the dactyle in the first and third, and 
the anapcest chiefly in the first place (except in proper names, 
when it is admissible in any place except the last). 

Rem. 2. This is the form of the measure in the Tragedians, 
which is the only form with which we are here concerned. 

Rem. 3. This verse is called trimeter, because a metre or measure 
is considered as consisting of two feet (a dipody), and hence, while it 
has six feet, it has but three measures. It is sometimes called acata- 
lectic (complete), to distinguish it from that which wants the last syl- 
lable (catalectic) . . 

3. In scanning this verse, place the principal accent on the 
last syllable of the odd feet (i. e. of the first foot of each 
dipody) and a slight accent on the last syllable of the even 
feet (the first of which may be represented by the acute 
accent and the second by the grave), and make a pause 
for the caesura at the end of the first word which divides 
a foot after completing the second foot, or the first dipody. 
Thus : — 



VERSIFICATION. 207 

HSqKaAtos^Kcu — creKTosav XeiaiVTrvXcov. 
Qkoivovclv Tade\^<fiov — iV prjvr]SKapa. 
~Ep.oip€i>ov^d€is — pvQos^v Tiyovrjfyikw. 
Harepdyepai^av — 6fja(p€T\K reprjTepa. 
AWeapLCKa^TTjv — etjefjLov dvo-(3ov\iav. 

III. ANAPAESTIC DIMETER (ACATALECTIC). 

1. This verse consists of four feet, or two measures, in 
which the anapaest is the fundamental foot, but admits either a 
dactyle (but not before an anapaest in the same dipody) or a 
spondee in its place. 

2. This verse occurs in systems, at the beginning, or end, 
or in the middle of the choruses of the Greek Tragedies, inter- 
spersed with lines of but two feet (monometers), and closing 
with a line having three feet and a syllable over (paramiac). 

3. In scanning this verse, place the principal accent, as in 
the iambic dimeter, on the last syllable of the first foot of each 
metre, with a slight accent on the second, and make the 
caesural pause generally at the end of the first dipody (which 
is more properly a diceresis liian a caesura), but sometimes 
after the first syllable of the second dipody. Thus : — 

KaifjLf)V7rp07ru\(bv \\ rjbl'crprjvf] 
<E»tXaSeX^>a/cara) || daKpV€ij3op.€vrj 
N€(j)€\r)do4>pv<0v || VTT€paip.aToev 
VcOosaio-xwel 
Teyyovcrevco Trairapei^av, 

Rem. 1. The above is a short anapaestic system from the Antigone 
of Sophocles (526-530). The monometer has no caesural pause, nor 
has the concluding line (parcemiac). 

Rem. 2. In this kind of verse the last syllable has no license of 
being long or short contrary to the requirements of its foot, but its 
quantity is affected by the consonant or consonants which commence 
the first word of the next line, as in other cases of position. 

Rem. 3. Sometimes, even in the Tragedians, we find several 
parcemiac lines in a system, besides a freer use of dactyles and spondees 
than is allowed in the regular systems. See Soph. Elect. 186 - 193. 



208 VERSIFICATION. 

Note. In the Homeric hexameter, e (and occasionally a, o, i, 
and v) before a vowel or diphthong in the same word is often pro- 
nounced with this vowel in one syllable (as, Ur)\r)'ia8P<o) , or the final 
vow r el of one word is pronounced in one syllable with the first vowel 
of the following word (synceresis or synizesis) ; as, iyio^ov. Synae- 
resis, also, is found, to some extent, in the iambic, anapaestic, and 
other metres of the Attic dramatists. 



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intended. We use it for the present year, in connection with the edition that has been 
used for several years. Most of the class, however, have procured your edition ; and it 
is probable that next year it will be used by all." 

From Professor Tyler, of Amherst College. 
" The notes seem to me to be prepared with much care, learning, and taste ; the 
grammatical illustrations are unusually full, faithful, and able. The book has been used 
by our Freshman class, and will, I doubt not, come into general use in our oolleges." 

From Professor Packard, of Bowdoin College. 
" I have recommended your edition to our Freshman Class. I have no doubt that 
your labors will give a new impulse to the study of this charming classic" 

34 



I). Jlppteicm & Co." $ Educational Publications, 
PROF. ASHBL C. KENDRXCK. 

Greek Ollendorff ; 

Being a Progressive Exhibition of the Principles of the Greek Grammar. 
Designed for beginners in Greek, and as a Book of Exercises for Acad- 
emies and Colleges. l"2mo. $1. 

" Among the many elementary books published for the use of schools, we have not 
met with one that has pleased us as much as Professor Kendrick's Greek Ollendorff. 
It seems exactly fitted for the purpose intended, viz., by instilling into the minds of the 
young the more simple elementary principles of the language, thus to prepare them for 
a more extensive and familiar acquaintance with the ancient Greek classics. Its sim- 
plicity is perfectly delightful. The unfamiliar character of the letters, and the long 
course of study required to sive a boy even a very imperfect knowledge of the Gram- 
mar, have deterred many a beginner from prosecuting the study of Greek, who, with 
the attractive volume before us, would have taken hold of it at once, and mastered all 
its difficulties. This is not only the best possible book to be put into the hands of boys, 
but it seems to us, that any person more advanced in years, and wishing to acquire 
some knowledge of Greek, even without a teacher, may, by the aid of this volume, ac- 
complish his object 

"The sounds of the letters and diphthongs, and the use of the breathings and accents, 
are so briefly, yet so familiarly explained, that, although the author recommends that this 
portion of the work should be deferred by the younger pupils to a second, or a third pe- 
rusal, yet such a recommendation seems to us to be hardly necessary. 

"A knowledge of the Greek Grammar has generally been considered as an indispen- 
sable qualification of the pupil before he begins to read Greek. The doing away with 
the necessity of this at the beginning, is very encouraging to the learner, while at the 
same time it gives the author an opportunity to introduce gradually, and almost imper- 
ceptibly, sufficient grammar to illustrate the examples as they occur ; and then, by re- 
peating these examples with variations almost innumerable, the principle is indelibly 
impressed upon the mind. 

In the older Greek books intended for schools, the examples given have been faulty, 
from their involving too many principles at the beginning. The mind of the pupil can- 
not comprehend so many things at once ; he gets confused, and becomes, after a while, 
discouraged. Whereas, in the Greek Ollendorff of Professor Kendrick, every principle 
of the Grammar is introduced by degrees, and only when it is wanted for application. 
It teaches rules by examples, rather than examples by rules. 

" Another advantage of this volume over the older school books of the kind, is the 
examples of double translation, introduced at the very beginning, and made a part ct 
the regular daily exercise. 

" The book is well printed in good type, and on go }d paper, for which the Appletom 
deserve due credit. 

" We conclude by recommending this work to the favorable attention of teachers*— 
IT. Y. Recorder. 



PROP. JAMES R. BOISE. 

Exercises in Greek Prose Composition. 

Adapted to the First Book of Xenophon's Anabasis. One volume 
12mo. Price 75 cents. 

*** For the convenience of the learner, an English-Greek Vocabulary, a Catalogue 
of the Irregular Yerbs, and an Index to the principal Grammatical Notes, have been 
appended. 

" A school-book of the highest order, containing a carefully arranged series of exer- 
cises derived from the first book of Xenophon's Anabasis (which is appended entire), 
an English and Greek Vocabulary, and a list of the principal modifications of irregular 
verbs. "We regard it as one peculiar excellence of this book, that it presupposes 
both the diligent scholar and the painstaking teacher; in other hands it would be 
not only useless, but unusable. We like it also, because, instead of aiming to give the 
pupil practice in a variety of styles, it places before him but a single model of Greek 
composition, and that the very author who combines in the greatestdegree purity of lan- 
guage and idiom, with a simplicity that both invites and rewards imitation." — Christian 
Eegx-ter. 

33 






D. Ajipleton & CoSs Educational Publications. 

Dr. Arnold's Classical Series. 

FIRST LATIN BOOK: re-modelled, re-written, and adapted to the 
Ollendorff Method of Instruction. By Albert II arkness. One vol. 12mo. 75cts. 
Several improvements have been introduced by Mr. II., and an effort made to sim- 
plify and render more clear the elementary portions of the work of Dr. Arnold. It is a 
capital book. 

A FIRST AND SECOND LATINBOOK AND PRACTICAL GRAM- 
MAE. Revised and carefully corrected, by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12mo. 
75 cts. 

A most admirable volume, based on the true principles of learning a language, viz., 
those of imitation and repetition. The pupil is put to work at once at Exercises in 
Latin, involving the elementary principles of the language ; words are supplied ; the 
mode of putting them together is told the pupil; and by imitating and repeating, all the 
time adding to his stock of words and ideas, the docile boy has the Latin elements in- 
delibly impressed upon his memory, and rooted in his understanding. 

IIL 

LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION: a Practical Introduction to Latin 
Prose Composition. Eevised and corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo. $1. 
Very exact, copious, and scientific; Latin synonymes are carefully illustrated, differ- 
ences of idiom noted, cautions as to niceties pointed out, and every help afforded to- 
wards attaining a pure and flowing Latin style. 

rv. 
CORNELIUS NEPOS; with Practical Questions and Answers, and an 
Imitative Exercise on each Chapter. Eevised, with Additional Notes, by Prof. 
Johnson, Professor of the Latin Language in the University of the City of New- 
York. 12mo. A new, enlarged edition, with Lexicon, Index, &c. $1. 
Very excellent, especially on account of the Exercises formed on the model of the 
text, by which the pupil becomes more thoroughly acquainted with the author and the 
language in general. A good vocabulary is attached. 

v. 
FIRST GREEK BOOK, on the Plan of the First Latin Book. Revised 
and corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo. 75 cts. 
A new and very admirable volume prepared by Prof. Spencer from the work of Dr 
Arnold. It is equally good with the First Latin Book, and carries out the same princi- 
ples to their legitimate results. 

VL 

GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION: a Practical Introduction to Greek 
Prose Composition. Eevised and corrected by J. A. Spencer, A M. One vol. 
12mo. 75 cts. 
Exact, clear, direct, and copious. It is intended for use at a rather early stage, viz., 

diT :ctly following the First Greek Book, or simultaneously with the Greek Heading 

z>ook. 

GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION. Part II. ' A Practical Introduction 
to Greek Prose Composition Part II. (The Particles.) 
In this volume the Particles are treated in full, and the student carried as far for- 
ward as is possible~in the art of composition in Greek. 

vnr. 
GREEK READING BOOK, for the L T se of Schools; containing the sub- 
stance of the Practical Introduction to Greek Construing, and a Treatise on the 
Greek Particles ; and also a Copious Selection from Greek Authors, with English 
Notes, Critical and Explanatory, and a Lexicon, by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo. 
$1 25. 
A capital volume, having admirable Introductory Exercises on the Forms and 
Idioms of the Language ; a choice collection of passages (of length) from standard au- 
thors : notes, clear, and precise ; and a copious lexicon at the end. It is fully equal to 
any One of the series. 
39 



D. Appleton & Co: } s \' Educational Publications. 

iii I ' ill,. \* n — — » — 

THOMAS ARNOLD, D. D. 

The History of Rome. 

Reprinted entire from the last London Edition. Three volumes in one, 
8vo. $3. 

"Arnold's History of Rome is a well known standard work. Full and acenrate as 
Niebuhr, but much more readable and attractive; more copious and exact than Knight- 
ley or Schmitz, and more reliable than Michelet, it has assumed a rank second to none 
in- value and importance. Its style is admirable, and it is every where imbued with the 
truth-loving spirit for which Dr. Arnold was pre-eminent. For Colleges and Schools 
this History is invaluable; and for private, as well as public libraries, it is indispensable* 



THOMAS ARNOLD, D. D. 

Lectures on Modem History. 

Edited, with a Preface and Notes, by Hexkt Reed, LL.D. 12mo. 
$1 25. 

Extract from the American Editor's Preface ; — "In preparing this edition. I have 
had in view its use, not only for the general reader, but also as a text-book in education, 
especially in our college course of study. * * * * The introduction of this work 
as a text-book I regard as important, because, as far as my information entitles me to 
speak, there is no book better calculated to inspire an interest in historical study. That 
it has this power over the minds of students I can say from experience, which enables 
me also to add, that I have found it excellently suited to a course of college instruction. 
By intelligent and enterprising members of a class especially, it is studied as a text- 
book with zeal and animation. 

"These Lectures, eight in number, furnish the best possible introduction to a philo- 
sophical study of modern history. Prof. Reed has added greatly to the worth and inter- 
est of the volume, by appending to each lecture such extracts from Dr. Arnold's other 
writings as would more fully illustrate its prominent points. The Notes and Appendix 
which he has thus furnished are exceedingly valuable." — Evening Post. 



PROF. FREDERICK KOHLRAUSCH. 

A History of Germany ; 

From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. Translated from the 
last German Edition, by James D. Haas. With a Complete Index, 
prepared expressly for this Edition. 8vo. $1 75. 

* Messrs. Appleton- : 

" Gentlemen, — Having adopted Kolrausch's History of Germany, as a text-book for 
an advanced class in history, I take great pleasure in stating that I have found no work, 
in a wide range of historical instruction, both ancient and modern, devoured with more 
avidity by my pupils, or resulting in their greater profit. Next to the history of our 
own country and that of England, I know of none so important to be familiarly under- 
stood by our American youth, as the History of Germany; in its bearings on modern 
civilization, the Protestant Reformation, the progress of literature, the advancement of 
the Arts and Sciences, and high classical scholarship, as well as also our own very origin 
and language. 

u The history of a nation with whose past and present we especially, not to say the 
whole civilized world, have such vital connections, though unknown perchance to a 
great extent to Dur educated men of a preceding generation, onght now to be introduced 
every where at once into all our high schools, as an essential part of a course of liberal 
education. M Yours, &c, 

"B. W. Dwigot. 
41 Brooklyn, Jan. 2+t/i, 1352." 
7 



D. Appleton & Co.^s Educational Publications. 



W C. TAYLOR. 

A Manual of Ancient and' Modem History ; 

Comprising — 

I. Ancient History, containing the Political History, Geographical Position, and 
Social State of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, carefully digested from the Ancienl 
Writers, and illustrated by the discoveries of Modern Travellers and Scholars. 

II. Modern History, containing the Eise and Progress of the principal European 
Nations, their Political History, and the changes in their Social Condition: with a His- 
tory of the Colonies founded by Europeans. 

By W. Cooke Taylor, LL. D., of Trinity College, Dublin. Kevised, 
with Additions on American History, by C. S. Henry, D. D., Professor 
of History in the University of N. Y. ; and Questions adapted for tho 
Use of Schools and Colleges. One handsome vol. 8vo., of 800 pages, 
$2 25 ; Ancient History in 1 vol., $1 25 ; Modern History in 1 vol., 
$150. 

"This is by far the best text-book of History ever issued. It is intended mainly for 
the use of schools ; but it cannot fail to be of the highest service to all who wish to study 
or read History systematically. It is in two parts ; the first presenting the political 
history, geographical description, and social state of all the leading nations of antiquity; 
/and the "second giving, still more fully, an outline of modern history upon the same 
plan. It will be exceedingly useful to all classes. Those who wish to enter upon a 
thorough study of history, will find in it an invaluable guide to their researches. It will 
give them an admirable frameicork whereon to build their structure of historical know- 
ledge Those who wish merely to become familiar with the most important events in 
the annals of the various nations that have existed, or do still exist, will find in it all they 
wish to know, completely digested and well arranged. 

"The work was originally prepared by Dr. Taylor, of Trinity College, Dublin, whoso 
eminent qualifications for so important a task, are well known. A chapter on American 
History, to render it complete, has been added by Prof. C. S. Henry, of the University 
in this city, who has also exercised a general editorial supervision over the work. 

"The book is well calculated to introduce the study of history more generally into 
the colleges and higher schools of this country; and will do much, we doubt not, to ex- 
cite a wider and deeper interest in this greatly neglected, but most important branch of 
education. It is well printed, and admirably calculated for universal circulation." 



M. GUIZOT. 

General History of Civilization in Europe, 

From the Fall of the Eoman Empire to the French Kevolutioru "With 
Notes, by C. S. Henry, D. D. 12mo. 75 cents. 

"To say any thing of the great value of this admirable work of Mr. Gnizot Is quite 
unnecessary. It is already well known to all the literary men of our country and the 
world, and its intrinsic merits have made it a text-book in many literary institutions of 
the United States. Written in a clear and lively style, it lias every where proved highly 
attractive." — Commercial Advertiser. 

"The present work was originally given to the world in a series of lectures pro- 
nounced at the old Soborne College in Paris; and from the date of its publication, 
ranked its author high among the greatest philosophic historians. His explanations of 
1 i-torical phenomena are beautiful lucid and logical, and we do not know a better work 
?!mn the present to guide the inquirer in his studies of the annals of nations— such a 
?<■- model does he here present of weighing, judging, and appreciating details."— 
v.- --Hp,' & Enquirer 
11 



D - AppUton & Coh Educational Publications. 



OLLENDORFF. 

Yew Method of Learning to Read, Write, and 

Sveal lice French Language: with an Appendix, containing the Cardinal 
and Ordinal Nnmbers, and full Paradigms of the Kegular and Irregu- 
lar, Auxiliary, Reflective, and Impersonal Verbs. By J L Jewi"tt 
One volume 12mo. $1. 
i^T A Key to the Exercises, in a separate volume. 75 cents 

wssmsmm 

wmmmmmm 

a A vJ hQ y. aloe of the work has been great! v enhanced by a careful revision *nd a* 

OLLENDORFF. 

Mew Method of Learning to Read, Write, and 

Spectl the French Language : with the Lessons divided into Sections of 
a Proper Length for Daily Tasks, and numerous Corrections, Additions 
and Improvements, suitable for this country, by V. Value; to which is 
added Value's System of French Pronunciation; his Grammatical Sy- 
nopsis ; a New Index, and Short Models of Commercial Correspond- 
ence. One volume 12mo. Price $1. 

^" A Key to the Exercises, in a separate volume. 75 cents. 

u Messrs, D. Appleton & Co. :— 
" Gentlemen, 

•' 1 ours, respectfully, 

"J EOEMER 
^ " Professor of the French Language in the Jf. T. Free Academy.* 



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others. Eoyal Svo. Uniform with Adler's German Dictionary 

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